i  hi  i 


1 


the  Latest  Date  stamped  below. 


L161_0-1096 


WOMAN  AND  SOCIALISM 


BY 


AUGUST   BEBEL 


Jubilee  ([     SI Vh    J!  Edition 


AUTHORIZED    TRANSLATION    BY 

META  L.  STERN  (HEBE) 


SOCIALIST  LITERATURE  GO. 

15  Spruce  Street,  New  York 


1910 


Copyright,  1910 

by  the 

SOCIALIST  LITERATURE  COMPANY 
New  York 


The  Co-Operative  Press,  15  Spruce  St.,   New  York 


Sntrnburtton. 


&&• 


E  are  living  in  an  age  of  great  social  transformations 
that  are  steadily  progressing.  In  all  strata  of  society 
we  perceive  an  unsettled  state  of  mind  and  an  increas- 
ing restlessness,  denoting  a  marked  tendency  toward 
profound  and  radical  changes.  Many  questions  have  arisen  and 
are  being  discussed  with  growing  interest  in  ever  widening  circles. 
One  of  the  most  important  of  these  questions  and  one  that  is  con- 
stantly coming  into  greater  prominence,  is  the  woman  question. 

The  woman  question  deals  with  the  position  that  woman 
should  hold  in  our  social  organism,  and  seeks  to  determine  how 
she  can  best  develop  her  powers  and  her  abilities,  in  order  to 
become  a  useful  member  of  human  society,  endowed  with  equal 
rights  and  serving  society  according  to  her  best  capacity.  From 
our  point  of  view  this  question  coincides  with  that  other  question  : 
In  what  manner  should  society  be  organized  to  abolish  oppression, 
exploitation,  misery  and  need,  and  to  bring  about  the  physical 
and  mental  welfare  of  individuals  and  of  society  as  a  whole?  To 
J  us  then,  the  woman  question  is  only  one  phase  of  the  general 
social  question  that  at  present  occupies  all  intelligent  minds;  its 
final  solution  can  only  be  attained  by  removing  social  extremes 
and  the  evils  which  are  a  result  of  such  extremes. 

Nevertheless,  the  woman  question  demands  our  special  con- 
sideration. What  the  position  of  'woman  has  been  in  ancient 
society,  what  her  position  is  to-day  and  what  it  will  be  in  the 
coming  social  order,  are  questions  that  deeply  concern  at  least 
one  half  of  humanity.  Indeed,  in  Europe  they  concern  a  majority 
of  organized  society,  because  women  constitute  a  majority  of  the 
population.  Moreover,  the  prevailing  conceptions  concerning  the 
development  of  woman's  social  position  during  successive  stages 
of  history  are  so  faulty,  that  enlightenment  on  this  subject  has 
become  a  necessity.  Ignorance  concerning  the  position  of  woman, 
chiefly  accounts  for  the  prejudice  that  the  woman's  movement 
has  to  contend  with  among  all  classes  of  people,  by  no  means 
least  among  the  women  themselves.  Many  even  venture  to  assert 
-,  that  there  is  no  woman  question  at  all,  since  woman's  position 
has  always  been  the  same  and  will  remain  the  same  in  the  future. 
because  nature  has  destined  her  to  be  a  wife  and  a  mother  and  to 
confine  her  activities  to  the  home.  Everything  that  is  beyond  the 
four  narrow  walls  of  her  home  and  is  not  closely  connected  with 
'  her  domestic  duties,  is  not  supposed  to  concern  her. 


4  Introduction 

In  the  woman  question  then  we  find  two  contending  parties, 
just  as  in  the  labor  question,  which  relates  to  the  position  of  the 
workingman  in  human  society.  Those  who  wish  to  maintain 
everything  as  it  is,  are  quick  to  relegate  woman  to  her  so-called 
"natural  profession,"  believing  that  they  have  thereby  settled  the 
whole  matter.  They  do  not  recognize  that  millions  of  women 
are  not  placed  in  a  position  enabling  them  to  fulfill  their  natural 
function  of  wifehood  and  motherhood,  owing  to  reasons  that  we 
shall  discuss  at  length  later  on.  They  furthermore  do  not  recog- 
nize that  to  millions  of  other  women  their  "natural  profession"  is 
a  failure,  because  to  them  marriage  has  become  a  yoke  and  a 
condition  of  slavery,  and  they  are  obliged  to  drag  on  their  lives 
in  misery  and  despair.  But  these  wiseacres  are  no  more  con- 
cerned by  these  facts  than  by  the  fact  that  in  various  trades  and 
professions  millions  of  women  are  exploited  far  beyond  their 
strength,  and  must  slave  away  their  lives  for  a  meagre  subsistence. 
They  remain  deaf  and  blind  to  these  disagreeable  truths,  as  they 
remain  deaf  and  blind  to  the  misery  of  the  proletariat,  consoling 
themselves  and  others  by  the  false  assertion  that  it  has  always 
been  thus  and  will  always  continue  to  be  so.  That  woman  is 
entitled,  as  well  as  man,  to  enjoy  all  the  achievements  of  civiliza- 
tion, to  lighten  her  burdens,  to  improve  her  condition,  and  to 
develop  all  her  physical  and  mental  qualities,  they  refuse  to  admit. 
When,  furthermore,  told  that  woman — to  enjoy  full  physical  and 
mental  freedom — should  also  be  economically  independent,  should 
no  longer  depend  for  subsistence  upon  the  good  will  and  favor 
of  the  other  sex,  the  limit  of  their  patience  will  be  reached.  In- 
dignantly they  will  pour  forth  a  bitter  endictment  of  the  "madness 
of  the  age"  and  its  "crazy  attempts  at  emancipation."  These  are 
the  old  ladies  of  both  sexes  who  cannot  overcome  the  narrow 
circle  of  their  prejudices.  They  are  the  human  owls  that  dwell 
wherever  darkness  prevails,  and  cry  out  in  terror  whenever  a  ray 
of  light  is  cast  into  their  agreeable  gloom. 

Others  do  not  remain  quite  as  blind  to  the  eloquent  facts. 
They  confess  that  at  no  time  woman's  position  has  been  so 
unsatisfactory  in  comparison  to  general  social  progress,  as  it  is 
at  present.  They  recognize  that  it  is  necessary  to  investigate  how 
the  condition  oi  the  self-supporting  woman  can  be  improved; 
but  in  the  case  of  married  women  they  believe  the  social  problem 
to  be  solved.  They  favor  the  admission  of  unmarried  women 
only  into  a  limited  number  of  trades  and  professions.  Others 
again  are  more  advanced  and  insist  that  competition  between  the 
sexes  should  not  be  limited  to  the  inferior  trades  and  professions, 
but  should  be  extended  to  all  higher  branches  of  learning  and  the 
arts  and  sciences  as  well.  They  demand  equal  educational  oppor- 
tunities and  that  women  should  be  admitted  to  all  institutions 


Introduction  5 

of  learning,  including  the  universities.  They  also  favor  the 
appointment  of  women  to  government  positions,  pointing  out  the 
results  already  achieved  by  women  in  such  positions,  especially  in 
the  United  States.  A  few  are  even  coming  forward  to  demand 
equal  political  rights  for  women.  Woman,  they  argue,  is  a  human 
being  and  a  member  of  organized  society  as  well  as  man,  and  the 
very  fact  that  men  have  until  now  framed  and  administered  the 
laws  to  suit  their  own  purposes  and  to  hold  woman  in  subjuga- 
tion, proves  the  necessity  of  woman's  participation  in  public 
affairs. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  all  these  various  endeavors  do  not  go 
beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  social  order.  The  question  is  not 
propounded  whether  any  of  these  proposed  reforms  will  accom- 
plish a  decisive  and  essential  improvement  in  the  condition  of 
women.  According  to  the  conceptions  of  bourgeois,  or  capi- 
talistic society,  the  civic  equality  of  men  and  women  is  deemed 
an  ultimate  solution  of  the  woman  question.  People  are  eithef 
unconscious  of  the  fact,  or  deceive  themselves  in  regard  to  it, 
that  the  admission  of  women  to  trades  and  industries  is  already 
practically  accomplished  and  is  being  strongly  favored  by  the 
ruling  classes  in  their  own  interest.  But  under  prevailing  condi- 
tions woman's  invasion  of  industry  has  the  detrimental  effect  of 
increasing  competition  on  the  labor  market,  and  the  result  is  a 
reduction  in  wages  for  both  male  and  femall  workers.  It  is  clear 
then,  that  this  cannot  be  a  satisfactory  solution.  + 

Men  who  favor  these  endeavors  of  women  within  the  scope 
of  present  society,  as  well  as  the  bourgeois  women  who  are  active 
in  the  movement,  consider  complete  civic  equality  of  women  the 
ultimate  goal.  These  men  and  women  then  differ  radically  from 
those  who,  in  their  narrow-mindedness,  oppose  the  movement 
They  differ  radically  from  those  men  who  are  actuated  by  petty 
motives  of  selfishness  and  fear  of  competition,  and  therefore  try 
to  prevent  women  from  obtaining  higher  education  and  from 
gaining  admission  to  the  better  paid  professions.  But  there  is 
no  difference  of  class  between  them,  such  as  exists  between  the 
worker  and  the  capitalist. 

If  the  bourgeois  suffragists  would  achieve  their  aim  and  would 
bring  about  equal  rights  for  men  and  women,  they  would  still  fail 
to  abolish  that  sex  slavery  which  marriage,  in  its  present  form, 
is  to  countless  numbers  of  women;  they  would  fail  to  abolish  pros- 
titution ;  they  would  fail  to  abolish  the  economic  dependence  of 
wives.  To  the  great  majority  of  women  it  also  remains  a  matter 
of  indifference  whether  a  few  thousand  members  of  their  sex, 
belonging  to  the  more  favored  classes  of  society,  obtain  higher 
learning  and  enter  some  learned  profession,  or  hold  a  public  office. 


v^ 


5  Introduction 

The  general   condition  of  the   sex   as   a   whole   is   not   altered 
thereby. 

The  female  sex  as  such  has  a  double  yoke  to  bear.  Firstly, 
women  suffer  as  a  result  of  their  social  dependence  upon  men,  and 
the  inferior  position  alloted  to  them  in  society;  formal  equality 
before  the  law  alleviates  this  condition,  but  does  not  remedy  it. 
Secondly,  women  suffer  as  a  result  of  their  economic  dependence, 
which  is  the  lot  of  women  in  general,  and  especially  of  the  prole- 
tarian women,  as  it  is  of  the  proletarian  men. 

We  see,  then,  that  all  women,  regardless  of  their  social  posi- 
tion, represent  that  sex  which  during  the  evolution  of  society  has 
been  oppressed  and  wronged  by  the  other  sex,  and  therefore  it  is 
to  the  common  interest  of  all  women  to  remove  their  disabilities 
by  changing  the  laws  and  institutions  of  the  present  state  and 
social  order.  But  a  great  majority  of  women  is  furthermore 
deeply  and  personally  concerned  in  a  complete  reorganization  of 
the  present  state  and  social  order  which  has  for  its  purpose  the 
abolition  of  wage-slavery,  which  at  present  weighs  most  heavily 
upon  the  women  of  the  proletariat,  as  also  the  abolition  of  sex- 
slavery,  which  is  closely  connected  with  our  industrial  conditions 
and  our  system  of  private  ownership. 

The  women  who  are  active  in  the  bourgeois  suffrage  move- 
ment, do  not  recogmze  the  necessity  of  so  complete  a  transforma- 
tion. Influenced  by  their  privileged  social  position,  they  consider, 
the  more  radical  aims  of  the  proletarian  woman's  movement' 
dangerous  doctrines  that  must  be  opposed.  The  class  antagonism 
that  exists  between  the  capitalist  and  working  class  and  that  is 
increasing  with  the  growth  of  industrial  problems,  also  clearly 
manifests  itself  then  within  the  woman's  movement.  Still  these 
sister-women,  though  antagonistic  to  each  other  on  class  lines, 
have  a  great  many  more  points  in  common  than  the  men  engaged 
in  the  class  struggle,  and  though  they  march  in  separate  armies 
they  may  strike  a  united  blow.  This  is  true  in  regard  to  all 
endeavors  pertaining  to  equal  rights  of  woman  under  the  present 
social  order;  that  is,  her  right  to  enter  any  trade  or  profession 
adapted  to  her  strength  and  ability,  and  her  right  to  civic  and 
political  equality.  These  are,  as  we  shall  see,  very  important  and 
very  far-reaching  aims.  Besides  striving  for  these  aims,  it  is  in 
the  particular  interest  of  proletarian  women  to  work  hand  in 
hand  with  proletarian  men  for  such  measures  and  institutions 
that  tend  to  protect  the  working  woman  from  physical  and  mental 
degeneration,  and  to  preserve  her  health  and  strength  for  a 
normal  fulfillment  of  her  maternal  functions.  Furthermore,  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  proletarian  woman  to  join  the  men  of  her  class 
in  the  struggle  for  a  thorough-going  transformation  of  society, 


Introduction  J 

to  bring  about  an  order  that  by  its  social  institutions  will  enable 
both  sexes  to  enjoy  complete  economic  and  intellectual  inde- 
pendence. 

Our  goal  then  is,  not  only  to  achieve  equality  of  men  and 
women  under  the  present  social  order,  which  constitutes  the  sole 
aim  of  the  bourgeois  woman's  movement,  but  to  go  far  beyond 
this,  and  to  remove  all  barriers  that  make  one  human  being 
dependent  upon  another,  which  includes  the  dependence  of  one 
sex  upon  the  other.  This  solution  of  the  woman  question  is 
identical  with  the  solution  of  the  social  question.  They  who  seek 
a  complete  solution  of  the  woman  question  must,  therefore,  join 
hands  with  those  who  have  inscribed  upon  their  banner  the  solu- 
tion of  the  social  question  in  the  interest  of  all  mankind — the 
Socialists. 

The  Socialist  Party  is  the  only  one  that  has  made  the  full 
equality  of  women,  their  liberation  from  every  form  of  de- 
pendence and  oppression,  an  integral  part  of  its  program;  not 
for  reasons  of  propaganda,  but  from  necessity.  For  there  can  be 
no  liberation  of  mankind  without  social  independence  and  equality 
of  the  sexes. 

All  Socialists  will  probably  agree  with  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples herein  expressed.  But  the  same  cannot  be  said  in  regard 
to  the  manner  in  which  we  picture  the  realization  of  our  ultimate 
aims,  that  is,  in  regard  to  the  particular  form  that  institutions 
should  take  to  bring  about  that  desired  independence  and  equality 
for  all.  As  soon  as  we  forsake  the  firm  foundation  of  reality, 
and  begin  to  depict  the  future,  there  is  a  wide  field  for  speculation. 
A  difference  of  opinion  immediately  arises  as  to  what  is  probable 
or  improbable.  Whatever,  therefore,  is  stated  in  this  book  con- 
cerning future  probabilities,  must  be  regarded  as  the  personal 
opinion  of  the  author,  and  eventual  attacks  must  be  directed 
against  his  person,  because  he  assumes  full  responsibility  for  his 
statements.  Attacks,  that  are  honestly  meant  and  are  objective 
in  character,  will  be  welcome;  those  that  distort  the  contents  of 
this  book  or  are  founded  upon  an  untruthful  interpretation  of 
their  meaning,  will  be  ignored.  It  remains  to  be  said,  that  in  the 
following  chapters  all  conclusions  should  be  drawn  which  become 
necessary  for  us  to  draw,  as  a  result  of  our  investigation  of  facts. 
To  be  unprejudiced  is  the  first  requirement  for  a  recognition  of 
the  truth,  and  only  by  expressing  without  reserve  that  which  is 
and  that  which  is  to  be,  can  we  attain  our  ends. 


Woman  in  tly* 


CHAPTER  I. 
The  Position  of  Woman  in  Primeval  Society. 

i. — Chief  Epochs  of  Primeval  History. 

T  is  the  common  lot  of  woman  and  worker  to  be 
oppressed.  The  forms  of  oppression  have  differed 
in  successive  ages  and  in  various  countries,  but 
the  oppression  itself  remained.  During  the  course 
of  historic  development  the  oppressed  ones  have  fre- 
quently recognized  their  oppression,  and  this  recogni- 
tion has  led  to  an  amelioration  of  their  condition ;  but  it 
remained  for  our  day  to  recognize  the  fundamental 
causes  of  this  oppression,  both  in  regard  to  the  woman 
and  in  regard  to  the  worker.  It  was  necessary  to  under- 
stand the  true  nature  of  society  and  the  laws  governing 
social  evolution,  before  an  effective  movement  could 
develop  for  the  purpose  of  abolishing  conditions  that  had 
come  to  be  regarded  as  unjust.  But  the  extent  and  pro- 
foundness of  such  a  movement  depend  upon  the  amount 
of  insight  prevailing  among  those  strata  of  society 
affected  by  the  unjust  conditions,  as  also  upon  the  free- 
dom of  action  possessed  by  them.  In  both  respects 
woman,  owing  to  custom,  education  and  lack  of  freedom, 
is  less  advanced  than  the  worker.  Moreover,  conditions 
that  have  prevailed  for  generations  finally  become  a 
habit,  and  heredity  as  well  as  education  make  them  ap- 
pear "natural"  to  both  parties  concerned.  That  explains 
why  women  accept  their  inferior  position  as  a  matter  of 
course,  and  do  not  recognize  that  it  is  an  unworthy  one, 
and  that  they  should  strive  to  obtain  equal  rights  with 
men,  and  to  become  equally  qualified  members  of  society. 

But  whatever  similarities  exist  between  the  position 
of  woman  and  that  of  the  workingman,  woman  has  one 
precedence  over  the  workingman.  She  is  the  first  human 


io      The  Position  of  Woman  in  Primeval  Society 

being  which  came  into  servitude.  Women  were  slaves 
before  men. 

All  social  dependence  and  oppression  is  rooted  in  the 
economic  dependence  of  the  oppressed  upon  the  oppres- 
sor. Woman — so  we  are  taught  by  the  history  of  human 
development — has  been  in  this  position  since  an  early 
stage. 

Our  understanding  of  this  development  is  compara- 
tively recent.  Just  as  the  myth  of  the  creation  of  the 
world,  as  taught  by  the  Bible,  could  not  be  maintained 
in  face  of  innumerable  and  indisputable  facts  founded 
upon  modern,  scientific  investigation,  it  also  became  im- 
possible to  maintain  the  myth  of  the  creation  and  devel- 
opment_of  man.  Not  all  phases  of  the  history  of  evolu- 
tion have  as  yet  been  elucidated.  Difference  of  opinion 
still  exists  among  scientists  in  regard  to  one  or  another 
of  the  natural  phenomena  and  their  relation  to  each 
other;  but,  on  the  whole,  clearness  and  a  general  con- 
sension  of  opinion  prevails.  It  is  certain  that  man  has 
not  made  his  appearance  upon  the  earth  as  a  civilized 
being — as  the  Bible  asserts  of  the  first  human  pair — but 
that  in  the  long  course  of  ages  he  gradually  evolved  from 
a  mere  animal  condition,  and  that  he  passed  through 
various  stages  during  which  his  social  relations  as  well 
as  the  relations  between  man  and  woman  experienced 
many  transformations. 

The  convenient  assertion  that  is  resorted  to  daily  by 
ignorant  or  dishonest  people,  both  in  regard  to  the  rela- 
tion between  man  and  woman  as  also  in  regard  to  the 
relation  between  the  rich  and  the  poor — the  assertion 
that  it  has  always  been  thus  and  will  always  continue 
to  be  so — is  utterly  false,  superficial  and  contrary  to  the 
truth  in  every  respect. 

A  cursory  description  of  the  relations  of  the  sexes 
since  primeval  days  is  of  special  importance  for  the  pur- 
pose of  this  book.  For  it  seeks  to  prove  that,  if  in  the 
past  progress  of  human  development,  these  relations 
have  been  transformed  as  a  result  of  the  changing 
methods  of  production  and  distribution,  it  is  obvious  that 
a  further  change  in  the  methods  of  production  and  dis- 
tribution must  again  lead  to  a  new  transformation  in  the 


Woman  in  the  Past  n 

relation  of  the  sexes.  Nothing  is  eternal,  either  in  nature 
or  in  human  life ;  change  is  the  only  eternal  factor. 

As  far  as  we  can  look  backward  along  the  line  of 
human  evolution,  we  see  the  horde*  representing  the 
first  human  community.  Only  when  the  horde  increased 
in  numbers  to  such  an  extent  that  it  became  difficult  to 
obtain  the  necessary  means  of  subsistence,  which  origi- 
nally consisted  of  roots,  seeds  and  fruit,  a  disbanding  of 
the  members  resulted,  and  new  dwelling  places  were 
sought  for. 

We  have  no  written  records  of  this  almost  animal-like 
stage,  but  studies  of  the  various  stages  of  civilization 
among  extinct  and  living  savages  prove  that  such  a  stage 
has  at  one  time  existed.  Man  has  not  stepped  into  life 
as  a  highly  civilized  being,  upon  a  command  from  the 
Creator,  but  has  passed  through  a  long,  infinitely  slow 
process  of  evolution,  and  in  the  tips  and  downs  of  waver- 
ing periods  of  development,  and  in  a  constant  process  of 
differentiation,  in  all  climes  and  in  all  quarters  of  the 
globe,  has  passed  through  many  stages  until  finally 
climbing  the  height  of  his  present  civilization. 

And  while  in  some  parts  of  the  globe  great  nations 
represent  the  most  advanced  stage  of  civilization,  we  find 
other  peoples  in  various  places  representing  varied 
stages  of  development.  These  present  to  us  a  vivid 
picture  of  our  own  past,  and  point  out  to  us  along  which 
roads  humanity  has  traveled  in  its  long  course  of  evolu- 
tion. If  we  shall  at  some  time  succeed  in  establishing 
general  and  definite  aspects  according  to  which  so- 
ciological investigations  shall  be  conducted,  an  abundance 
of  facts  will  result,  destined  to  cast  a  new  light  upon  the 
relations  of  men  in  the  past  and  the  present.  Events 
will  then  seem  comprehensible  and  natural,  that  at  pres- 


*"The  theory  of  natural  rights  and  the  doctrine  of  the  social  con- 
tract, which  places  an  isolated  human  being  at  the  beginnings  of 
human  development,  is  an  invention  utterly  foreign  to  reality,  and  is 
therefore  worthless  for  the  theoretical  analysis  of  human  institu- 
tions as  it  is  for  a  knowledge  of  history.  Man  should,  on  the  con- 
trary, be  classed  with  gregarious  animals ;  that  is,  with  those  species 
whose  individuals  are  combined  into  permanent  groups." — (Edw. 
Meyer:  "The  Origin  of  the  State,  in  Its  Relation  to  Tribal  and 
National  Association."  1907.) 


12       The  Position  of  Woman  in  Primeval  Society 

ent  are  quite  beyond  our  comprehension,  and  that  super- 
ficial critics  frequently  condemn  as  irrational,  sometimes 
even  as  immoral.  Scientific  researches,  commenced  by 
Backofen,  and  since  continued  by  a  considerable  number 
of  learned  men  as  Taylor,  MacLennon,  Lubbock  and 
others,  have  gradually  lifted  the  veil  from  the  earliest 
history  of  our  race.  These  investigations  were  elabo- 
rated by  Morgan's  able  book,  and  to  this  again  Frederick 
Engels  has  added  a  number  of  historic  facts,  economic 
and  political  in  character.  Recently  these  researches 
have  been  partly  confirmed  and  partly  corrected  by 
Cunow.* 

The  clear  and  vivid  descriptions  given  by  Frederick 
Engels  in  his  splendid  work,  that  is  founded  upon  Mor- 
gan's investigations,  have  cast  a  flood  of  light  upon  many 
factors  in  the  histories  of  peoples  representing  various 
stages  of  development ;  factors  that  until  that  time  had 
seemed  irrational  and  incomprehensible.  They  have 
enabled  us  to  obtain  an  insight  into  the  gradual  upbuild- 
ing of  the  social  structure.  As  a  result  of  such  insight 
we  perceive  that  our  former  conceptions  in  regard  to 
marriage,  family  and  state,  have  been  founded  upon 
utterly  false  premises.  But  whatever  has  been  proven 
concerning  marriage,  family  and  state,  is  equally  true  in 
regard  to  the  position  of  woman,  which,  in  the  various 
stages  of  social  development,  has  differed  radically  from 
what  is  supposed  to  be  woman's  "eternal"  position. 

Morgan  divides  the  history  of  mankind — and  this 
division  is  also  adopted  by  Engels — into  three  chief 
epochs :  savagery,  barbarism  and  civilization.  Each  of 
the  two  earlier  periods  he  subdivides  into  a  lower,  a 


*Backofen's  book  was  published  in  1861.  It  was  entitled,  ''The 
Matriarchate ;  Studies  of  the  Gynocratic  Customs  of  the  Old  World  in 
Their  Religious  and  Legal  Aspects."  Publishers.  Krais  &  Hoffmann, 
Stuttgart.  Morgan's  fundamental  work,  "Ancient  Society,  or  Re- 
searches in  the  Lines  of  Human  Progress  from  Savagery  Through 
Barbarism  to  Civilization,"  was  published  in  1877  by  Henry  Holt  & 
Co.  "The  Origin  of  the  Family,"  by  Frederick  Engels,  founded  upon 
Morgan's  investigations,  was  published  bv  J.  H.  W.  Dietz,  Stuttgart, 
as  was  also  "Relationship  Organizations  of  the  Australian  Negro ;  a 
Contribution  to  the  History  of  the  Family/'  by  Henry  Cunow,  which 
appeared  in  1894. 


Woman  in  the  Past  13 

medium  and  a  higher  stage,  because  these  stages  differ 
in  regard  to  fundamental  improvements  in  the  method 
of  obtaining  the  means  of  subsistence.  Those  changes 
which  occur  from  time  to  time  in  the  social  systems  of 
nations  as  a  result  of  improved  methods  of  production, 
Morgan  considers  one  of  the  chief  characteristics  in  the 
progress  of  civilization,  which  is  quite  in  keeping  with 
the  materialistic  conception  of  history  as  laid  down  by 
Karl  Marx  and  Frederick  Engels.  Thus  the  lowest  stage 
in  the  period  of  savagery  represents  the  childhood  of 
mankind.  During  this  stage  men  still  were  tree-dwellers, 
and  fruit  and  roots  constituted  their  chief  nourishment; 
but  even  then  articulated  language  began  to  take  form. 
The  medium  stage  of  savagery  begins  with  the  consump- 
tion of  small  animals  such  as  fish,  crabs,  etc.,  for  food, 
and  with  the  discovery  of  fire.  Men  begin  to  manu- 
facture weapons,  clubs  and  spears  made  of  wood  and 
stone,  and  this  means  the  inception  of  the  hunt  and 
probably  also  of  war  among  neighboring  hordes,  who 
contended  with  one  another  for  the  sources  of  nourish- 
ment and  the  most  desirable  dwelling  places  and  hunting 
grounds.  At  this  stage  also  cannibalism  appears,  which 
is  still  met  with  among  some  tribes  in  Africa,  Australia 
and  Polynesia.  The  higher  stage  of  savagery  is  char- 
acterized by  the  invention  of  the  bow  and  arrow;  the 
invention  of  the  art  of  weaving;  the  making  of  mats  and 
baskets  from  bast  and  reeds,  and  the  manufacture  of 
stone  implements. 

As  the  beginning  of  the  lowest  stage  of  barbarism, 
Morgan  denotes  the  invention  of  pottery.  Man  learns 
the  domestication  of  wild  animals  with  the  resultant  pro- 
duction of  meat  and  milk,  and  thereby  obtains  the  use  of 
hides,  horns  and  furs  for  the  most  varied  purposes.  Hand 
in  hand  with  the  domestication  of  animals,  agriculture 
begins  to  develop.  In  the  western  part  of  the  world  corn 
is  cultivated ;  in  the  eastern  part,  almost  all  kinds  of 
grain,  with  the  exception  of  corn,  is  grown.  During  the 
medium  stage  of  barbarism  we  find  an  increasing- 
domestication  of  useful  animals  in  the  East,  and  in  the 
West  we  find  an  improved  cultivation  of  nourishing 
plants  with  the  aid  of  .artificial  irrigation.  The  use  of 


14      The  Position  of  Woman  in  Primeval  Society 

stones  and  sun-dried  bricks  for  building  purposes  is  also 
originated  at  this  time.  Domestication  and  breeding 
favor  the  formation  of  herds  and  flocks  and  lead  to  a 
pastoral  life,  and  the  necessity  of  producing  larger  quan- 
tities of  nourishment  for  both  men  and  animals  leads 
to  increased  agriculture.  The  result  is  a  more  sedentary 
mode  of  life  with  an  accompanying  increase  in  provisions 
and  greater  diversity  of  same,  and  gradually  cannibalism 
disappears. 

The  higher  stage  of  barbarism  has  been  reached  with 
the  smelting  of  iron  ore  and  the  invention  of  alphabetical 
writing.  The  invention  of  the  iron  plough  gives  a  new 
impetus  to  agriculture;  the  iron  axe  and  spade  and  hoe 
make  it  easier  to  clear  the  forest  and  to  cultivate  the  soil. 
With  the  forging  of  iron  a  number  of  new  activities  set 
in,  giving  life  a  different  shape.  Iron  tools  simplify  the 
building  of  houses,  ships  and  wagons.  The  malleation 
of  metals  furthermore  leads  to  mechanical  art,  to  an 
improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  arms,  and  to  the 
building  of  walled  cities.  Architecture  is  developed,  and 
mythology,  poetry  and  history  are  conserved  and  dis- 
seminated by  means  of  alphabetical  writing. 

The  Oriental  countries  and  those  situated  about  the 
Mediterranean  Sea — Egypt,  Greece  and  Italy — are  the 
ones  in  which  this  mode  of  life  was  especially  developed, 
and  here  the  foundation  was  laid  to  later  social  trans- 
formations that  have  had  a  decisive  influence  upon  the 
development  of  civilization  in  Europe  and,  in  fact,  in  all 
the  countries  of  the  globe. 

2. — Family  Forms. 

The  periods  of  savagery  and  barbarism  were  char- 
acterized by  singular  social  and  sex  relations,  that  differ 
considerably  from  those  of  later  times. 

Backofen  and  Morgan  have  thoroughly  investigated 
these  relations.  Backofen  carried  on  his  investigations 
by  a  profound  study  of  ancient  writings,  with  the  pur- 
pose of  gaining  an  understanding  of  various  phenomena 
presented  in  mythology  and  ancient  history,  that  impress 
us  strangely  and  yet  show  similarity  with  facts  and 


Woman  in  the  Past  15 

occurrences  of  later  days,  even  down  to  the  present  time. 
Morgan  carried  on  his  investigations  by  spending  decades 
of  his  life  among  the  Iroquois  Indians  in  the  State  of 
New  York,  whereby  he  made  new  and  unexpected 
observations  of  the  modes  of  family  life  and  system  of 
relationship  prevailing  among  them,  and  these  observa- 
tions served  as  a  basis  to  place  similar  observations, 
made  elsewhere,  in  the  proper  light. 

Backofen  and  Morgan  discovered,  independently  from 
one  another,  that  in  primeval  society  the  relations  of  the 
sexes  differed  vastly  from  those  prevalent  during  historic 
times  and  among  modern,  civilized  nations.  Morgan  dis- 
covered, furthermore,  as  a  result  of  his  long  sojourn 
among  the  Iroquois  of  North  America,  and  his  compara- 
tive studies  to  which  'these  observations  led  him,  that  all 
existing  primitive  peoples  have  family  relations  and  sys- 
tems of  relationship  that  differ  markedly  from  our  own, 
but  which  must  have  prevailed  generally  among  all 
peoples  at  a  remote  period  of  civilization. 

At  the  time  when  Morgan  lived  among  the  Iroquois, 
he  found  that  among  them  existed  a  monogamous  mar- 
riage, easily  dissolved  by  either  side,  termed  by  him  the 
"pairing  family."  But  he  also  found  that  the  terms  of 
relationship  as  father,  mother,  son,  daughter,  brother, 
sister,  although  there  could  be  no  doubt  in  our  minds  as 
to  whom  such  terms  should  apply,  were  not  used  in  their 
ordinary  sense.  The  Iroquois  addresses  as  sons  and 
daughters  not  only  his  own  children,  but  also  those  of 
all  his  brothers,  and  these — his  brothers'  children — call 
him  father.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Iroquois  woman  does 
not  only  call  her  own  children  sons  and  daughters,  but 
also  those  of  all  her  sisters,  and  again  all  her  sisters'  chil- 
dren call  her  mother.  But  the  children  of  her  brothers  she 
calls  nephews  and  nieces,  and  these  call  her  aunt.  Chil- 
dren of  brothers  call  one  another  brothers  and  sisters, 
and  so  do  children  of  sisters.  But  the  children  of  a 
woman  and  her  brother  call  each  other  cousins.  The 
curious  fact  then  presents  itself  that  the  terms  of  rela- 
tionship are  not  determined  by  the  actual  degrees  of 
relationship,  but  the  sex  of  the  relative. 

This  system  of  kinship  is  not  only  fully  accepted  by 


1 6       The  Position  of  Woman  in  Primeval  Society 

all  American  Indians  as  well  as  by  the  aborigines  of 
India,  the  Dravidian  tribes  of  Deckan  and  the  Gaura 
tribes  of  Hindostan,  but  similar  systems  must  have 
existed  everywhere  primarily,  as  has  been  proven  by 
investigations  that  were  undertaken  since  those  of  Back- 
ofen.  When  these  established  facts  shall  be  taken  as 
a  basis  for  further  investigations  among  living  savage  or 
barbaric  tribes,  similar  to  the  investigations  made  by 
Backofen  among  various  peoples  of  the  ancient  world, 
by  Morgan  among  the  Iroquois  and  by  Cunow  among 
the  Australian  Negroes,  it  will  be  shown  that  social  and 
sex  relations  constituted  the  foundation  for  the  develop- 
ment of  all  nations  of  the  world. 

Morgan's  investigations  have  revealed  still  other  in- 
teresting facts.  While  the  "pairing  family"  of  the 
Iroquois  is  in  contradiction  to  the  terms  of  relationship 
employed  by  them,  it  was  shown  that  in  the  Sandwich 
Islands  (Hawaii)  there  existed  up  to  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  a  family  form  which  actually  cor- 
responded to  that  system  of  kinship  that  among  the 
Iroquois  existed  only  in  name.  But  the  Hawaiian  system 
of  kinship  again  did  not  agree  with  the  family  form  pre- 
vailing there  at  the  time,  but  pointed  to  another  form  of 
the  family,  still  more  remote,  and  no  longer  in  existence. 
There  all  the  children  of  brothers  and  sisters,  without 
exception,  were  regarded  as  brothers  and  sisters,  and 
were  considered  the  common  children,  not  only  of  their 
mother's  and  her  sisters'  or  their  father's  and  his 
brothers',  but  of  all  the  brothers  and  sisters  of  both  their 
parents. 

The  Hawaiian  system  of  kinship  then  corresponded 
to  a  degree  of  development  that  was  still  lower  than  the 
prevailing  family  form.  We  are  thus  confronted  by  the 
peculiar  fact,  that  in  Hawaii  as  among  the  North  Ameri- 
can Indians,  two  different  systems  of  kinship  were  em- 
ployed that  no  longer  corresponded  to  existing  condi- 
tions, but  had  been  superseded  by  a  higher  form.  Morgan 
expresses  himself  on  this  phenomenon  in  the  following 
manner:  "The  family  is  the  active  element;  it  is  never 
stationary,  but  progresses  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  form 
in  the  same  measure  in  which  society  develops  from 


Woman  in  the  Past  17 

a  lower  to  a  higher  stage.  But  the  systems  of  kinship 
are  passive.  Only  in  long  intervals  they  register  the 
progress  made  by  the  family  in  course  of  time,  and  only 
then  are  they  radically  changed  when  the  family  has 
done  so." 

The  prevalent  conception  that  the  present  family  form 
has  existed  since  times  immemorial  and  must  continue  to 
exist  lest  our  entire  civilization  be  endangered — a  con- 
ception that  is  vehemently  defended  by  the  upholders  of 
things  as  they  are — has  been  proven  faulty  and  untenable 
by  the  researches  of  these  scientists.  The  study  of  prime- 
val history  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the  entirely  different  re- 
lation of  the  sexes  at  an  early  period  of  human  develop- 
ment from  their  present  relation,  and  when  viewed  in 
the  light  of  our  present-day  conceptions,  they  seem  a 
monstrosity,  a  ;nire  of  immorality.  But  as  each  stage  in 
social  development  has  its  own  methods  of  production, 
thus  each  stage  also  has  its  own  code  of  morals,  which  is 
only  a  reflection  of  its  social  conditions.  Morals  are  deter- 
mined by  custom,  and  customs  correspond  to  the  inner- 
most nature,  that  is,  to  the  social  necessities  of  any 
given  period. 

Morgan  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  in  the  lowest 
stage  of  savagery  unrestricted  sexual  intercourse  existed 
within  the  tribe,  so  that  all  the  women  belonged  to  all 
the  men  and  all  the  men  belonged  to  all  the  women ;  that 
is,  a  condition  of  promiscuity.  All  men  practice  poly- 
gamy, and  all  women  practice  polyandry;  there  is  a  com- 
mon ownership  of  wives  and  husbands  as  also  a  common 
ownership  of  the  children.  Strabo  relates  (66  B.  C.) 
that  among  the  Arabs  brothers  have  sexual  intercourse 
with  their  sisters  and  sons  with  their  mothers.  Incest 
was  originally  a  requirement  to  make  it  possible  for 
human  beings  to  multiply.  This  explanation  must  espe- 
cially be  resorted  to  if  we  accept  the  biblical  story  of  the 
origin  of  man.  The  Bible  contains  a  contradiction  in 
regard  to  this  delicate  subject.  It  relates  that  Cain, 
having  killed  his  brother  Abel,  fled  from  the  presence  of 
the  Lord  and  lived  in  the  land  of  Nod.  There  Cain  knew 
his  wife  and  she  conceived  and  bore  a  son  unto  him. 

But  whence  came  his  wife?     Cain's  parents  were  the 


I 


1 8      The  Position  of  Woman  in  Primeval  Society 

first  man  and  woman.  According  to  the  Hebrew  tradi- 
tion, two  sisters  were  born  to  Cain  and  Abel,  with  whom 
they  begot  children.  The  Christian  translators  of  the 
Bible  appear  to  have  suppressed  this  unpleasant  fact. 
That  promiscuity  prevailed  in  a  prehistoric  stage,  that  the 
primeval  horde  was  characterized  by  unrestricted  sexual 
intercourse,  is  also  shown  in  the  Indian  myth  that  Brama 
wedded  his  own  daughter  Saravasti.  The  same  myth  is 
met  with  among  the  Egyptians  and  in  the  Norse  "*,Edda.'J 
The  Egyptian  god  Ammon  was  the  husband  of  his 
mother  and  boasted  of  the  fact,  and  Odin,  according  to 
the  "Edda"  was  the  husband  of  his  own  daughter 
Frigga.*  Dr.  Adolf  Bastian  relates:  "In  Swaganwara 
the  daughters  of  the  Rajah  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  freely 
choosing  their  husbands.  Four  brothers  who  settled  in 
Kapilapur  made  Priya,  the  eldest  of  their  five  sisters, 
queen  mother  and  married  the  others.** 

Morgan  assumes  that  from  the  state  of  general  pro- 
miscuity, a  higher  form  of  sexual  relation  gradually 
developed,  the  consanguine  family.  Here  the  marriage 
groups  are  arranged  by  generations ;  all  the  grandfathers 
and  grandmothers  within  a  certain  family  are  mutually 
husbands  and  wives;  their  children  constitute  another 
cycle  of  husbands  and  wives,  and  again  the  children  of 
these  when  they  have  attained  the  proper  age.  In  differ- 
entiation then  from  the  promiscuity  prevailing  at  the 
lowest  stage,  we  here  find  one  generation  excluded  from 
sexual  intercourse  with  another  generation.  But  brothers 
and  sisters  and  cousins  of  the  first,  second  and  more 
remote  grades  are  all  brothers  and  sisters  and  also  hus- 
bands and  wives.  This  family  form  corresponds  to  the 

*Dr.  Ziegler,  professor  of  zoology  at  the  university  of  Freiburg, 
ridicules  the  idea  of  attaching  any  historical  importance  to  myths. 
This  conception  only  proves  the  biased  judgment  of  the  scientist. 
The  myths  contain  a  profound  meaning,  for  they  have  sprung  from 
the  soul  of  the  people  and  are  founded  upon  ancient  customs  and 
traditions  that  have  gradually  disappeared  but  continue  to  survive 
in  the  myths  glorified  by  the  halo  of  religion.  If  facts  are  met  with 
th?.t  explain  the  myth,  there  is  good  ground  for  attaching  historical 
importance  to  the  same. 

**Dr.  Adolf  Bastian,  "Travels  in  Singapore,  Batavia,  Manila  and 
Japan." 


Woman  in  the  Past  19 

system  of  kinship  that  during  the  first  half  of  the  last 
century  still  existed  in  Hawaii  in  name  but  no  longer  in 
fact.  According  to  the  American  and  Indian  system  of  kin- 
ship, brother  and  sister  can  never  be  father  and  mother  to 
the  same  child,  but  according  to  the  Hawaiian  system 
they  may.  The  consanguine  family  also  prevailed  at  the 
time  of  Herodotus  among  the  Massagetes.  Of  these  he 
wrote:  "Every  man  marries  a  woman  but  all  are  per- 
mitted to  have  intercourse  with  her."*  Similar  condi- 
tions Backofen  proves  to  have  existed  among  the 
Lycians,  Etruscans,  Cretans,  Athenians,  Lesbians  and 
Egyptians. 

According  to  Morgan,  the  consanguine  family  is  suc- 
ceeded by  a  third,  higher  form  of  family  relations,  which 
he  calls  the  "Punaluan  family" — "punaluan"  meaning 
"dear  companion." 

Morgan's  conception  that  the  consanguine  family, 
founded  upon  the  formation  of  marriage  classes  accord- 
ing to  generations,  which  preceded  the  Punaluan  family, 
was  the  original  form  of  family  life,  is  opposed  by  Cunow 
in  his  book  referred  to  above.  Cunow  does  not  consider 
the  consanguine  family  the  most  primitive  form  of  sexual 
intercourse  discovered,  but  deems  it  an  intermediary 
stage  leading  to  the  true  gentile  organization,  in  which 
stage  the  generic  classification  in  strata  of  different  ages 
belonging  to  the  so-called  consanguine  family,  runs 
parallel  for  a  while  with  the  gentile  order.**  Cunow 
says,  furthermore :  The  class  division — every  man  and 
every  woman  bearing  the  name  of  their  class  and  their 
totem — does  not  prevent  sexual  intercourse  among  rela- 
tions on  collateral  lines,  but  it  does  prevent  it  among 
relations  of  preceding  and  succeeding  lines,  parents  and 
children;  aunts  and  nephews,  uncles  and  nieces.  Terms 
as  uncle,  aunt,  etc.,  denote  entire  groups. 

Cunow  furnishes  proof  in   regard  to  the  points   in 


*Backofen:   "The  Matriarchate." 

**In  the  gentile  order  each  gens  has  its  totem,  as  lizard,  opossum, 
emu,  wolf,  bear,  etc.,  from  which  the  gens  derives  its  name.  The 
totem  animal  is  held  sacred,  and  members  of  the  gens  may  not  kill  it 
or  eat  its  flesh.  The  significance  of  the  totem  was  similar  to  that  of 
the  patron  saint  among  the  medieval  guilds. 


20       The  Position  of  Woman  in  Primeval  Society 

which  he  differs  from  Morgan.  But  though  he  differs 
from  Morgan  in  many  respects,  he  clearly  defends  him 
against  the  attacks  of  Westermarck  and  others.  He 
says :  "Although  some  of  Morgan's  theories  may  be 
proven  to  be  incorrect,  and  others  partly  so,  to  him  still 
is  due  the  credit  of  having  been  the  first  to  discover  the 
identity  existing  between  the  totem-groups  of  the  North 
American  Indians  and  the  gentile  organizations  of  the 
Romans.  He,  furthermore,  was  the  first  to  show  that 
our  present  family  form  and  system  of  relationship  is  the 
outcome  of  a  lengthy  process  of  evolution.  We,  there- 
fore, are  indebted  to  him  for  having  made  further  research 
possible,  for  having  laid  the  foundation  upon  which  we 
may  continue  to  build."  In  the  introduction  to  his  book 
he  also  states  explicitly  that  his  work  is  partly  a  supple- 
ment to  Morgan's  book  on  ancient  society. 

Westermarck  and  Starcke,  to  whom  Dr.  Ziegler  espe- 
cially refers,  will  have  to  accept  the  fact  that  the  origin 
and  evolution  of  the  family  are  not  in  keeping  with  their 
bourgeois  prejudices.  Cunow's  refutations  should  en- 
lighten the  most  fanatical  opponents  of  Morgan  as  to  the 
value  of  their  opposition. 

3. — The  Matriarchate. 

According  to  Morgan,  the  Punaluan  family  begins 
with  the  exclusion  of  brothers  and  sisters  on  the  mother's 
side.  Wherever  a  woman  has  several  husbands,  it  be- 
comes impossible  to  determine  paternity.  Paternity 
becomes  a  mere  fiction.  Even  at  present,  with  the  insti- 
tution of  monogamous  marriage,  paternity — as  Goethe 
said  in  his  "Apprenticeship,"  ''depends  upon  good  faith." 
But  if  paternity  is  dubious  in  monogamous  marriage 
even,  it  is  surely  beyond  the  possibility  of  determination 
where  polyandry  prevails.  Only  descent  from  the 
mother  can  be  shown  clearly  and  undeniably ;  therefore, 
children,  during  the  term  of  the  matriarchate,  were 
termed  "spurii,"  seed.  As  all  social  transformations  are 
consummated  infinitely  slow  upon  a  low  stage  of  devel- 
opment, thus  also  the  transition  from  the  consanguine 
family  to  the  Punaluan  family  must  have  extended 


Woman  in  the  Past  21 

through  a  great  length  of  time,  and  many  retrogressions 
must  undoubtedly  have  occurred  that  could  still  be  per- 
ceived in  later  days.  The  immediate,  external  cause  for  the 
development  of  the  Punaluan  family  may  have  the  neces- 
sity of  dividing  the  greatly  increased  group  for  the  pur- 
pose of  finding  new  soil  for  agricultural  purposes  and 
for  the  grazing  of  herds.  But  it  is  also  probable  that 
with  increasing  development,  people  gradually  came  to 
understand  the  harmfulness  and  the  impropriety  of 
sexual  intercourse  between  brother  and  sister  and  close 
relatives,  and  that  this  recognition  led  to  a  different 
arrangement  of  marriage  relations.  That  this  was  the 
case  is  shown  by  a  pretty  legend  that,  as  Cunow  tells  us, 
was  related  to  Gason  among  the  Dieyeris,  a  tribe  of 
Southern  Australia.  This  legend  describes  the  origin  of 
the  "Murdu,"  the  gentile  organization,  in  the  following 
manner : 

"After  the  creation  fathers,  mothers,  brothers,  sisters 
and  other  closely  related  persons  married  indiscrimi- 
nately among  themselves,  until  the  evil  consequences  of 
such  marriages  were  clearly  seen.  Thereupon  the  leaders 
held  a  council  to  consider  what  could  be  done,  and  finally 
they  begged  Muramura,  the  great  spirit,  to  bid  them  what 
to  do.  Muramura  bade  them  divide  the  tribe  into  many 
branches  and  to  name  these  after  animals  and  inanimate 
objects  to  distinguish  them  from  one  another;  for  in- 
stance, Mouse,  Emu,  Lizzard,  Rain,  etc.  The  members 
of  each  group  should  not  be  permitted  to  marry  among 
themselves,  but  should  choose  their  mates  from  another 
group.  Thus  the  son  of  an  Emu  should  not  marry  the 
daughter  of  an  Emu,  but  he  might  marry  the  daughter 
of  a  Mouse,  a  Lizard,  a  Rain,  or  any  other  family." 
This  tradition  is  more  plausible  than  the  biblical  one, 
and  shows  the  origin  of  gentile  organization  in  the 
simplest  manner. 

Paul  Lafargue  showed  in  an  article  published  in  the 
German  periodical,  "Neue  Zeit,"  that  names  like  Adam 
and  Eva  did  not  originally  denote  individual  persons,  but 
were  the  names  of  gentes  in  which  the  Jews  were  con- 
stituted in  prehistoric  days.  By  his  argumentation  La- 
fargue elucidates  a  number  of  otherwise  obscure  and  con- 


22       The  Position  of  Woman  in  Primeval  Society 

tradictory  points  in  the  first  book  of  Moses.  In  the  same 
periodical  M.  Beer  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  among 
the  Jews  a  superstition  still  prevails  according  to  which 
a  man's  mother  and  his  fiancee  must  not  have  the  same 
name,  lest  misfortune,  disease  and  death  be  brought 
upon  the  family.  This  is  a  further  proof  of  the  correct- 
ness of  Lafargue's  conception.  Gentile  organization  pro- 
hibited marriage  between  persons  belonging  to  the  same 
gens.  According  to  the  gentile  conception,  then,  the  fac.t 
that  a  man's  mother  and  his  fiancee  had  the  same  name, 
proved  their  belonging  to  the  same  gens.  Of  course, 
present-day  Jews  are  ignorant  of  the  connection  existing 
between  their  superstition  and  the  ancient  gentile  organi- 
zation which  prohibited  such  marriages.  These  pro- 
hibitory laws  had  the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  evils 
icsulting  from  close  intermarriage,  and  though  gentile 
organization  among  the  Jews  has  gone  out  of  existence 
thousands  of  years  ago,  we  still  see  traces  of  the  ancient 
tradition  preserved.  Early  experiences  in  the  breeding 
of  animals  may  have  led  to  a  recognition  of  the  dangers 
of  inbreeding. 

How  far  such  experiences  had  been  developed  may  be 
seen  from  the  first  book  of  Moses,  chapter  30,  32  stanza, 
where  it  is  told  how  Jacob  cheated  his  father-in-law 
Laban  by  providing  for  the  birth  of  spotted  lambs  and 
goats  that  were  to  be  his,  according  to  Laban's  promise. 
Thus  ancient  Israelites  were  applying  Darwin's  theories 
in  practice  long  before  Darwin's  time. 

Since  we  are  discussing  conditions  that  existed  among 
the  ancient  Jews,  it  will  be  well  to  quote  a  few  further 
facts  which  prove  that  in  antiquity  maternal  law  actually 
prevailed  among  them.  Although  in  the  first  book  of 
Moses,  3,  16,  is  written  in  regard  to  woman:  "And  thy 
desire  shall  be  to  thy  husband  and  he  shall  rule  over 
thee,"  in  the  first  book  of  Moses,  2,  24,  we  find  the  lines : 
"Therefore  shall  a  man  leave  his  father  and  his  mother 
and  shall  cleave  unto  his  wife  and  they  shall  be  one 
flesh."  The  same  wording  is  repeated  in  Matthew,  19,  5 ; 
Mark,  10,  7,  and  in  the  epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  5,  31. 
This  command  then  is  rooted  in  maternal  law,  for  which 


Woman  in  the  Past  23 

interpreters  of  the  Bible  had  no  explanation  and,  there- 
fore, presented  it  incorrectly. 

Maternal  law  is  likewise  shown  to  have  existed  in  the 
fourth  book  of  Moses,  32,  41.  There  it  is  said  that  Jair 
had  a  father  of  the  tribe  of  Juda,  but  his  mother  came 
from  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  and  Jair  is  explicitly  called 
the  son  of  Manasseh  and  became  heir  to  that  tribe.  In 
Nehemiah,  7,  63,  we  find  still  another  example  of  maternal 
law  among  the  ancient  Jews.  There  the  children  of  a 
priest  who  married  one  of  the  daughters  of  Barzillai,  a 
Jewish  clan,  are  called  the  children  of  Barzillai.  They 
are,  accordingly,  not  called  by  their  father's  but  by  their 
mother's  name. 

In  the  Punaluan  family,  according  to  Morgan,  one  or 
more  series  of  sisters  of  one  family  group  married  one 
or  more  series  of  brothers  of  another  family  group.  A 
number  of  sisters  or  cousins  of  the  first,  second  and  more 
remote  degrees  were  the  common  wives  of  their  common 
husbands,  who  were  not  permitted  to  be  their  brothers. 
A  number  of  brothers  or  cousins  of  various  degrees  were 
the  common  husbands  of  their  common  wives,  who  were 
not  permitted  to  be  their  sisters.  As  inbreeding  was 
thereby  prohibited,  this  new  form  of  marriage  was  favor- 
able to  higher  and  more  rapid  development,  and  gave 
those  tribes  that  had  adopted  this  family  form  an  advan- 
tage over  those  who  maintained  the  old  form  of  sex 
relations. 

The  following  system  of  kinship  resulted  from  the 
Punaluan  family:  The  children  of  my  mother's  sisters 
are  her  children,  and  the  children  of  my  father's  brothers 
are  his  children,  and  all  are  my  brothers  and  sisters.  But 
the  children  of  my  mother's  brothers  are  her  nephews 
and  nieces  and  the  children  of  my  father's  sisters  are  his 
nephews  and  nieces,  and  all  are  my  cousins.  The  hus- 
bands of  my  mother's  sisters  are  still  her  husbands  and 
the  wives  of  my  father's  brothers  are  still  his  wives,  but 
the  sisters  of  my  father  and  the  brothers  of  my  mother 
are  excluded  from  the  family  group,  and  their  children 
are  my  cousins.* 


*Frederick  Engels :   "Origin  of  the  Family." 


24       The  Position  of  Woman  in  Primeval  Society 

With  increasing  civilization  sexual  intercourse  among 
brothers  and  sisters  is  put  under  the  ban,  and  this  is 
gradually  extended  to  all  collateral  relatives  on  the 
mother's  side.  A  new  consanguine  family,  the  gens,  is 
evolved  that  originally  consists  of  natural  and  remote 
sisters  and  their  children,  together  with  their  natural  or 
remote  brothers  on  the  mother's  side.  The  gens  has  a 
common  ancestress  to  whom  the  groups  of  female  gen- 
erations trace  their  descent.  The  men  do  not  belong  to 
the  gens  of  their  wives,  but  to  the  gens  of  their  sisters. 
But  the  children  of  these  men  belong  to  the  gens  of  their 
mothers,  because  descent  is  traced  from  the  mother.  The 
mother  is  considered  the  head  of  the  family.  Thus  the 
matriarchate  was  evolved  that  for  a  long  time  constituted 
the  foundation  of  family  relations  and  inheritance.  While 
the  maternal  law  prevailed,  women  had  a  voice  and  vote 
in  the  councils  of  the  gens,  they  helped  to  elect  the 
sachems  and  leaders  and  to  depose  them.  When  Han- 
nibal formed  an  alliance  with  the  Gauls  against  the 
Romans,  he  decided  that  in  case  disputes  should  arise 
among  the  allies,  the  Gallic  matrons  should  be  intrusted 
with  the  mission  of  arbitrating;  so  great  was  his  confi- 
dence in  their  impartiality. 

Of  the  Lycians  who  recognized  maternal  law  Herodo- 
tus tells  us:  "Their  customs  are  partly  Cretan  and  partly 
Carian.  But  they  have  one  custom  that  distinguishes 
them  from  all  other  nations  in  the  world.  If  you  ask  a 
Lycian  who  he  is,  he  will  tell  you  his  name,  his  mother's 
name,  and  so  on  in  the  line  of  female  descent.  Moreover, 
when  a  free  woman  marries  a  slave,  her  children  remain 
free  citizens.  But  if  a  man  marries  a  foreign  woman  or 
takes  unto  himself  a  concubine,  his  children  are  deprived 
of  all  civic  rights,  even  though  he  be  the  most  eminent 
man  in  the  state." 

At  that  time  "matrimonium"  was  spoken  of  instead  of 
"patrimonium,"  "mater  famihas"  was  said  instead  of 
"pater  familias,"  and  one's  native  country  was  referred 
to  as  the  motherland.  Just  as  the  earlier  family  forms, 
the  gens  was  founded  on  the  common  ownership  of  prop- 
erty, that  is,  it  was  a  communistic  form  of  society. 
Woman  was  the  leader  and  ruler  in  this  kinship  organiza- 


Woman  in  the  Past  25 

tion  and  was  highly  respected,  her  opinion  counting  for 
much  in  the  household  as  well  as  in  the  affairs  of  the 
tribe.  She  is  peacemaker  and  judge,  and  discharges  the 
duties  of  religious  worship  as  priestess. 

The  frequent  appearance  of  queens  and  women  rulers 
in  antiquity,  and  the  power  wielded  by  them  even  when 
their  sons  were  the  actual  rulers,  which  was  the  case  in 
Egypt,  for  instance,  was  an  outcome  of  the  matriarchate. 
During  that  period  mythological  characters  are  chiefly 
feminine,  as  seen  from  the  godesses  Astarte,  Demeter, 
Ceres,  Latona,  Iris,  Frigga,  Freya,  Gerda,  and  many 
others.  Woman  is  invulnerable;  matricide  is  deemed 
the  most  dreadful  crime  that  calls  upon  all  men  for 
vengeance.  It  is  the  common  duty  of  all  the  men  of  the 
tribe,  to  avenge  an  injury  inflicted  upon  any  member  of 
their  kinship  by  a  member  of  any  other  tribe.  Defense 
of  the  women  incites  the  men  to  highest  bravery.  Thus 
the  influence  of  the  matriarchate  was  perceived  in  all 
social  relations  of  the  ancient  peoples,  among  the  Baby- 
lonians, the  Egyptians,  the  Assyrians,  the  Greeks  before 
the  heroic  age,  the  Italic  tribes  before  the  founding  of 
Rome,  the  Scythians,  the  Gauls,  the  Iberians,  the  Canta- 
brians,  the  Germans,  and  others,  /vt  that  time  woman 
held  a  position  in  society  as  she  has  never  held  since. 
Tacitus  says  in  his  Germania" :  ''The  Germans  believe 
that  within  every  woman  dwells  something  holy  and 
prophetic ;  therefore  they  honor  woman's  opinion  and 
follow  her  advice."  Diodorus,  who  lived  at  the  time  of 
Qesar,  was  quite  indignant  over  the  position  of  women 
in  Egypt.  He  had  heard  that  in  Egypt  not  sons  but 
daughters  supported  their  aged  parents.  He  therefore 
spoke  disparagingly  of  the  hen-pecked  men  at  the  Nile, 
who  granted  rights  and  privileges  to  the  weaker  sex  that 
seemed  outrageous  to  a  Greek  or  a  Roman. 

Under  maternal  law  comparatively  peaceful  conditions 
prevailed.  Social  relations  were  simple  and  narrow  and 
the  mode  of  life  was  a  primitive  one.  The  various  tribes 
kept  aloof  from  one  another  and  respected  each  other's 
domain.  If  one  tribe  was  attacked  by  another  the  men 
took  up  arms  for  defense  and  were  ably  supported  by 
the  women.  According  to  Herodotus,  the  women  of  the 


26      The  Position  of  Woman  in  Primeval  Society 

Scythians  took  part  in  battles;  virgins — so  he  claims — 
were  not  permitted  to  marry  until  they  had  slain  an 
enemy.  Taken  all  in  all,  the  physical  and  mental  differ- 
ences between  man  and  woman  were  not  nearly  as  great 
in  primeval  days  as  they  are  at  present.  Among  almost 
all  savage  and  barbarian  tribes,  the  differences  in  the  size 
and  weight  of  brains  taken  from  male  and  female  indi- 
viduals, are  smaller  than  among  civilized  nations.  Also 
the  women  of  these  tribes  are  not  inferior  to  the  men  in 
physical  strength  and  skill.  Proof  of  this  is  furnished 
not  only  by  the  writers  of  antiquity  in  regard  to  peoples 
living  under  maternal  law,  but  also  by  the  Amazon  regi- 
ments of  the  Ashantis  and  the  King  of  Dahome  in  West- 
ern Africa,  that  excel  in  ferocity  and  courage.  What 
Tacitus  relates  in  regard  to  the  women  of  the  ancient 
Germans,  and  Caesar's  opinion  of  the  women  of  the 
Iberians  and  the  Scots,  furnish  additional  proof.  Colum- 
bus was  attacked  near  Santa  Cruz  by  a  troop  of  Indians 
in  a  small  sloop  in  which  the  women  fought  as  bravely 
as  the  men.  This  conception  is  furthermore  confirmed 
by  Havelock  Ellis:  "Among  the  Audombies  on  the 
Congo,  according  to  Mr.  H.  H.  Johnstone,  the  women, 
though  working  very  hard  as  carriers  and  as  laborers  in 
general,  lead  an  entirely  happy  existence ;  they  are  often 
stronger  than  the  men  and  more  finely  developed,  some 
of  them,  he  tells  us,  having  really  splendid  figures.  And 
Parke,  speaking  of  the  Manyuema  of  the  Arruwimi  in  the 
same  region,  says  that  they  are  fine  animals  and  the 
women  very  handsome;  they  carry  loads  as  heavy  as 
those  of  the  men  and  do  it  quite  as  well.  In  North 
America  again  an  Indian  chief  said  to  Hearne:  Women 
were  made  for  labor;  one  of  them  can  carry  or  haul  as 
much  as  two  men  can  do.  Schellong,  who  has  carefully 
studied  the  Papuans  in  the  German  protectorate  of  New 
Guinea  from  the  anthropological  point  of  view,  considers 
that  the  women  are  more  strongly  built  than  the  men. 
In  Central  Australia  again,  the  men  occasionally  beat  the 
women  through  jealousy,  but  on  such  occasions  it  is  by 
no  means  rare  for  the  woman,  single-handed,  to  beat  the 
man  severely.  At  Cuba,  the  women  fought  beside  the 
men  and  enjoyed  great  independence.  Among  some 


Woman  in  the  Past  27 

races  of  India,  the  Pueblos  of  North  America,  the  Pata- 
gonians,  the  women  are  as  large  as  the  men.  So  among 
the  Afghans,  with  whom  the  women  in  certain  tribes 
enjoy  a  considerable  amount  of  power.  Even  among  the 
Arabs  and  Druses  it  has  been  noted  that  the  women  are 
nearly  as  large  as  the  men.  And  among  Russians  the 
sexes  are  more  alike  than  among  the  English  or  French.* 

In  the  gens  women  sometimes  ruled  with  severity,  and 
woe  to  the  man  who  was  too  lazy  or  too  clumsy  to  con- 
tribute his  share  to  the  common  sustenance.  He  was 
cast  out  and  was  obliged  either  to  return  to  his  own 
gens,  where  he  was  not  likely  to  be  received  kindly,  or 
to  gain  admission  into  another  gens  where  he  was  judged 
less  harshly. 

That  this  form  of  matrimony  has  been  maintained  by 
the  natives  of  Central  Africa  to  this  very  day  was  experi- 
enced by  Livingstone,  to  his  great  surprise,  as  related 
by  him  in  his  book,  "Missionary  Travels  and  Researches 
in  Southern  Africa."  At  the  Zambesi  he  encountered 
the  Balonda,  a  strong  and  handsome  Negro  tribe,  en- 
gaged in  agricultural  pursuits,  and  was  soon  able  to  con- 
firm the  reports  made  to  him  by  Portugiese,  which  he 
had  at  first  declined  to  believe,  that  the  women  held  a 
superior  position  among  them.  They  are  members  of 
the  tribal  council.  When  a  young  man  marries,  he  must 
migrate  from  his  village  into  the  one  in  which  his  wife 
resides.  He  must  at  the  same  time  pledge  himself  to 
provide  his  mother-in-law  with  kindling  wood  for  life- 
time. The  woman,  in  turn,  must  provide  her  husband's 
food.  Although  minor  quarrels  between  man  and  wife 
occasionally  occurred,  Livingstone  found  that  the  men 
did  not  rebel  against  female  supremacy.  But  he  found, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  when  men  had  insulted  their 
wives,  they  were  severely  punished — by  their  stomachs. 
The  man — so  Livingstone  relates — comes  home  to  eat, 
but  is  sent  from  one  woman  to  another  and  is  not  given 
anything.  Tired  and  hungry,  he  finally  climbs  upon  a 
tree  in  the  most  populous  part  of  the  village  and  ex- 
claims, with  a  woe-begone  voice:  "Hark,  hark!  I 


*Havelock  Ellis:   "Man  and  Woman." 


28     Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate 

thought  I  had  married  women,  but  they  are  witches! 
I  am  a  bachelor;  I  have  not  a  single  wife!  Is  that  just 
and  fair  to  a  lord  like  myself?!" 


CHAPTER  II. 
Conflict  between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate. 

i. — Rise  of  the  Patriarchate. 

With  the  increase  in  population  a  number  of  sister 
gentes  arose  that  again  brought  forth  several  daughter 
gentes.  The  mother  gens  was  distinguished  from  these 
as  the  phratry.  A  number  of  phratries  constituted  the 
tribe.  So  strong  was  this  social  organization  that  it  still 
constituted  the  unit  of  military  organization  in  the  states 
of  anitquity,  when  the  old  gentile  constitution  had 
already  been  abandoned.  The  tribe  was  subdivided  into 
several  branches,  all  having  a  common  constitution  and 
in  each  of  which  the  old  gens  could  be  recognized.  But 
as  the  gentile  constitution  prohibited  intermarriage 
among  remote  relatives  even  on  the  mother's  side,  it 
undermined  its  own  existence.  A  social  and  economic 
development  made  the  relation  of  the  various  gentes  to 
one  another  more  and  more  complicated,  the  interdict  of 
marriage  between  certain  groups  became  untenable  and 
ceased  to  be  observed.  While  production  of  the  necessi- 
ties of  life  was  at  its  lowest  stage  of  development,  and 
destined  to  satisfy  only  the  simplest  demands,  the  activi- 
ties of  men  and  women  were  essentially  the  same.  But 
with  increasing  division  of  labor  there  resulted  not  onlv 
a  diversity  of  occupations,  but  a  diversity  of  possessions 
as  well.  Fishing,  hunting,  cattle-breeding  and  agricul- 
ture, and  the  manufacture  of  tools  and  implements, 
ncessitated  special  knowledge,  and  these  became  the 
special  province  of  the  men.  Man  took  the.  lead  along 
these  lines  of  development  and  accordingly  became 
master  and  owner  of  these  new  sources  of  wealth. 

Increasing  population  and  the  desire  for  an  extensive 
ownership  of  land  for  agricultural  and  pastoral  purposes, 


Woman  in  the  Past  29 

led  to  struggles  and  battles  over  the  possession  of  such 
land;  it  also  led  to  a  demand  for  labor-power.  An  in- 
crease in  labor-power  meant  greater  wealth  in  produce 
and  flock.  To  procure  such  labor-power  the  rape  of 
women  was  at  first  resorted  to,  and  then  the  enslavement 
of  vanquished  men,  who  had  formerly  been  killed.  Thus 
two  new  elements  were  introduced  into  the  old  gentile 
constitution  that  were  incompatible  with  its  very  nature. 

Still  another  factor  came  into  play.  The  division  of 
labor  and  the  growing  demand  for  tools,  implements, 
weapons,  etc.,  led  to  a  development  of  handicraft  along 
distinct  lines  apart  from  agriculture.  A  special  class  of 
craftsmen  arose,  whose  interests  in  regard  to  the  owner- 
ship and  inheritance  of  property  diverged  considerably 
from  those  of  the  agricultural  class. 

As  long  as  descent  was  traced  from  female  lineage, 
members  of  the  gens  became  heirs  to  their  deceased  rela- 
tives on  the  mother's  side.  All  property  remained  within 
the  gens.  Under  the  changed  conditions  the  father  had 
become  owner  of  flocks  and  slaves,  weapons  and  produce, 
but  being  a  member  of  his  mother's  gens  he  could  not 
will  his  property  to  his  children,  but  had  to  leave  same 
to  his  brothers  and  sisters  or  to  his  sisters'  children.  His 
own  children  were  disinherited.  A  strong  desire  for 
changing  this  state  of  affairs  therefore  began  to  manifest 
itself,  and  it  was  changed  accordingly.  Polygamy  and 
polyandry  gave  way  to  the  pairing  family.  A  certain 
man  lived  with  a  certain  woman,  and  the  children  born 
from  this  relation  were  their  children.  These  pairing 
families  developed  gradually,  being  hampered  by  the 
marriage  interdicts  of  the  gentile  constitution,  but 
favored  by  the  above  enumerated  economic  causes.  The 
old  household  communities  were  not  in  keeping  with  the 
idea  of  private  property.  Class  and  occupation  became 
determining  factors  in  the  choice  of  a  place  of  residence. 
An  increased  production  of  commodities  gave  rise  to  com- 
merce among  neighboring  and  more  widely  separated 
nations  and  necessitated  the  development  of  finance.  Man 
was  the  one  to  conduct  and  control  this  development. 
His  private  interests,  therefore,  were  no  longer  har- 
monious to  the  old  gentile  organization ;  on  the  contrary, 


30     Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate 

they  were  frequently  diametrically  opposed  to  it.  There- 
fore this  organization  became  of  less  and  less  importance, 
and  finally  all  that  remained  of  the  gens  was  the  con- 
ducting of  a  number  of  religious  rites  within  the  family 
group.  The  economic  significance  was  lost  and  the  final 
dissolution  of  the  gentile  constitution  only  remained  a 
question  of  time. 

With  the  Breaking  up  of  the  old  gentile  organization 
the  power  and  influence  of  woman  rapidly  declined.  The 
matriarchate  disappeared  and  the  patriarchate  took  its 
place.  Man,  being  an  owner  of  private  property,  had  an 
interest  in  having  legitimate  children  to  whom  he  could 
will  his  property,  and  he,  therefore,  forced  upon  woman 
the  prohibition  of  intercourse  with  other  men. 

But  for  himself  he  reserved  the  right  of  maintaining  as 
many  concubines  as  his  means  would  permit  beside  his 
legitimate  wife  or  wives,  and  their  offspring  were  regarded 
as  legitimate  children.  The  Bible  furnishes  important  evi- 
dence on  this  subject  in  two  instances.  In  the  first  book 
of  Moses,  16,  I  and  2,  it  says:  "Sarai,  Abram's  wife,  bore 
him  no  children ;  and  she  had  an  handmaid,  an  Egyptian, 
whose  name  was  Hagar.  And  Sarai  said  unto  Abram: 
Behold  now,  the  Lord  hath  restrained  me  from  bearing; 
I  pray  thee,  go  in  unto  my  maid;  it  may  be  that  I  may 
obtain  children  by  her.  And  Abram  hearkened  to  the 
voice  of  Sarai."  The  second  noteworthy  evidence  is 
found  in  the  first  book  of  Moses,  30,  I ;  it  reads  as  fol- 
lows: "And  when  Rachel  saw  that  she  bore  Jacob  no 
children,  Rachel  envied  her  sister,  and  said  unto  Jacob : 
Give  me  children  or  else  I  die.  And  Jacob's  anger  was 
kindled  against  Rachel  and  he  said :  Am  I  in  God's  stead 
who  has  withheld  from  thee  the  fruit  of  the  womb  ?  And 
she  said:  Behold  my  maid,  Billah,  go  in  unto  her;  and 
she  shall  bear  upon  my  knees  that  I  may  also  have  chil- 
dren by  her.  And  she  gave  him  Billah,  her  handmaid, 
to  wife,  and  Jacob  went  in  unto  her." 

Thus  Jacob  was  not  only  married  to  two  sisters,  the 
daughters  of  Laban,  but  both  also  gave  him  their  hand- 
maids to  wives,  a  custom  that  was  not  immoral  accord- 
ing to  the  moral  conceptions  of  the  time.  His  two  chief 
wives  he  had  married  by  purchase,  having  served  their 


Woman  in  the  Past  31 

father  Laban  seven  years  for  each  of  them.  At  that  time 
it  was  the  general  custom  among  the  Jews  to  purchase 
wives,  but  besides  they  carried  on  a  widespread  robbery 
of  women  from  nations  conquered  by  them.  Thus,  for 
instance,  the  Benjamites  robbed  the  daughters  of  Shiloh. 
The  captured  woman  became  a  slave,  a  concubine.  But 
she  could  be  raised  to  the  position  of  a  legitimate  wife, 
upon  fulfillment  of  the  following  command:  She  had  to 
cut  her  hair  and  nails  and  exchange  the  garments  in 
which  she  was  captured  with  others  given  to  her  by  her 
captors.  Thereupon  she  had  to  mourn  for  her  father  and 
mother  during  an  entire  month,  her  mourning  being 
destined  to  signify  that  her  people  were  dead  to  her. 
These  regulations  having  been  complied  with,  she  could 
enter  into  wedlock.  The  greatest  number  of  women  were 
owned  by  King  Solomon,  who,  according  to  the  first  book 
of  Kings,  chapter  n,  had  no  less  than  700  wives  and  300 
concubines. 

As  soon  as  the  patriarchate,  that  is,  paternal  descent, 
was  established  in  the  gentile  organization  of  the  Jews, 
the  daughters  were  excluded  from  inheritance.  Later 
this  rule  was  modified  in  cases  when  a  father  left  no  sons. 
This  is  shown  in  the  fourth  book  of  Moses,  27,  2-8.  There 
it  is  told  that  when  Zelophehad  died  without  leaving 
sons,  his  daughters  complained  bitterly  that  they  should 
be  excluded  from  their  father's  inheritance  that  was  to 
pass  to  the  tribe  of  Joseph.  Moses  decides  that  in  this 
case  the  daughters  should  be  heirs  to  their  father.  But 
when,  according  to  an  old  custom,  they  decide  to  choose 
husbands  from  another  tribe,  the  tribe  of  Joseph  com- 
plain that  thereby  they  are  losing  an  heritage.  There- 
upon Moses  decides  that  the  heiresses  may  choose  freely, 
but  that  they  must  make  their  choice  from  among  the 
men  in  their  father's  tribe.  So  it  was  in  behalf  of  prop- 
erty that  the  old  marriage  laws  were  annulled.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  in  the  days  of  the  old  Testament,  i.  e.,  in 
historical  times,  the  patriarchal  system  was  prevalent 
among  the  Jews,  and  the  clan  and  tribal  organization 
were  founded  on  descent  in  the  male  line,  as  was  the 
case  with  the  Romans.  According  to  this  system  the 
daughters  were  excluded  from  inheritance.  Thus  we 


32     Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate 

read  in  .the  first  book  of  Moses,  31,  14  and  15,  the  com- 
plaint of  Lea  and  Rachel,  daughters  of  Laban :  "Is  there 
yet  any  portion  or  inheritance  for  us  in  our  father's 
house?  Are  we  not  counted  of  him  strangers?  For  he 
hath  sold  us  and  hath  quite  devoured  also  our  money." 

Among  the  ancient  Jews,  as  among  all  other  nations 
where  the  matriarchate  was  succeeded  by  the  patri- 
archate, women  were  utterly  devoid  of  rights.  Marriage 
was  a  purchase  of  the  woman.  Absolute  chastity  was 
demanded  of  her ;  but  not  so  of  the  man,  who  moreover 
was  entitled  to  have  several  wives.  If  the  man  had 
cause  to  believe  that;  the  woman  had  lost  her  virginity 
prior  to  marriage,  he  was  not  only  entitled  to  cast  her  off, 
she  might  also  be  stoned  to  death.  The  same  punish- 
ment was  meted  out  to  the  adulteress ;  but  the  man  was 
subjected  to  the  same  punishment  only  then  when  he 
committed  adultery  with  a  Jewish  matron.  According 
to  the  first  book  of  Moses,  24,  i — 4,  a  man  was  entitled 
to  cast  off  a  woman  he  had  just  married  if  she  found  no 
favor  in  his  eyes,  even  though  his  displeasure  be  only  a 
whim.  Then  he  might  write  her  a  bill  of  divorcement, 
give  it  in  her  hand  and  send  her  out  of  his  house.  A 
further  proof  of  the  degraded  position  of  woman  among 
the  Jews  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  to  this  day 
women  attend  services  in  the  synagogue  in  a  space  sepa- 
rated from  the  men,  and  are  not  included  in  the  prayer.* 
According  to  the  Jewish  conception,  woman  is  not  a 
member  of  the  congregation ;  in  religion  and  politics  she 
is  a  mere  cipher.  When  ten  men  are  assembled  they 
'may  hold  services,  but  women  are  not  permitted  to  do 
so,  no  matter  how  many  of  them  are  assembled. 

In  Athens,  Solon  decreed  that  a  widow  should  marry 
her  nearest  relation  on  her  father's  side,  even  if  both 


*In  the  oldest  quarter  of  Prague  is  an  old  synagogue,  built 
during  the  sixth  century,  the  oldest  synagogue  in  Germany.  Upon 
descending  about,  seven"  steps  into  the  dusky  chamber,  the  visitor 
beholds  a  row  of  small  loop-holes  on  the  opposite  wall  leading  into 
an  .utterly  dark  room.  Upon  inquiry  we  are  told  by  the  guide  that 
this  is  the  woman's  room,  where "  the  women  attended  services. 
Modern  synagogues  are  less  gloomy,  but  the  separation  of  men  and 
women  is  still  maintained. 


Woman  in  the  Past  33 

belong  to  the  same  gens,  although  such  marriages  were 
forbidden  by  an  earlier  law.  Solon  likewise  decreed  that 
a  person  holding  property  need  not  will  it  to  his  gens 
but  might,  in  case  he  were  childless,  will  it  to  whomso- 
ever he  pleased.  We  see,  then,  that  man,  instead  of 
ruling  his  property,  is  being  ruled  by  it. 

With  the  established  rule  of  private  property  the  sub- 
jugation of  woman  by  man  was  accomplished.  As  a 
result  of  this  subjugation,  woman  came  to  be  regarded 
as  an  inferior  being  and  to  be  despised.  The  matriarchate 
implied  communism  and  equality  of  all.  The  rise  of  the 
patriarchate  implied  the  rule  of  private  property  and  the 
subjugation  and  enslavement  of  woman.  The  conserva- 
tive Aristophanes  recognized  this  truth  in  his  comedy, 
"The  Popular  Assembly  of  Women,"  for  he  has  the 
women  introduce  communism  as  soon  as  they  have 
gained  control  of  the  state,  and  then  proceeds  to  carica- 
ture communism  grossly  in  order  to  discredit  the  women. 

It  is  difficult  to  show  how  the  details  of  this  great 
transformation  were  accomplished.  This  first  great  revo- 
lution that  took  place  in  human  society  was  not  accom- 
plished simultaneously  among  all  the  civilized  nations  of 
antiquity,  and  has  probably  not  developed  everywhere 
along  the  same  lines.  Among  the  tribes  of  Greece,  the 
new  order  of  things  attained  validity  primarily  in  Athens. 

Frederick  Engels  holds  the  opinion  that  this  great 
transformation  was  brought  about  peaceably,  and  that, 
all  preliminary  conditions  making  such  a  change  desir- 
able being  given,  a  mere  vote  on  the  matter  in  the  gentes 
sufficed  to  put  the  patriarchal  system  in  place  of  the 
matriarchal  system.  Backofen,  on  the  other  hand,  be- 
lieves— his  opinion  founded  on  ancient  writers — that  the 
women  vehemently  opposed  this  social  transformation. 
He  considers  many  myths  of  the  Amazon  kingdoms  that 
are  met  with  in  the  histories  of  Oriental  countries,  in 
South  America  and  China,  proofs  of  the  struggle  arid 
opposition  of  women  against  the  new  order. 

With  the  rise  of  male  supremacy  the  women  were 
deprived  of  their  former  position  in  the  community.  They 
were  excluded  from  the  council  and  lost  their  determin- 
ing influence.  Men  compelled  women  to  be  faithful  in 


34     Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate 

marriage  without  recognizing  a  similar  duty  on  their 
part.  When  a  woman  is  faithless,  she  commits  the  worst 
deception  to  which  a  citizen  of  the  new  order  can  fall  a 
victim ;  she  brings  another  man's  children  into  his  house 
to  become  the  heirs  of  his  property.  That  is  why  among 
all  the  ancient  peoples  adultery,  when  committed  by  a 
woman,  was  punishable  by  death  or  slavery. 

Traces  of  the  Matriarchate  in  Greek  Myths  and  Dramas. 

Although  the  women  were  thus  deprived  of  their 
former  influential  position,  the  customs  connected  with 
the  ancient  cults  continued  to  dominate  the  minds  for 
centuries ;  only  their  deeper  meaning  was  gradually  lost, 
and  it  remained  for  the  present  time  to  investigate  them. 
Thus  it  was  customary  in  Greece  that  women  appealed 
for  advice  and  help  to  the  goddesses  only.  The  annual 
celebration  of  the  Thermophoria  clearly  derived  its  origin 
from  matriarchal  times.  Even  in  later  days  Greek  women 
still  celebrated  this  festival  in  honor  of  Demeter,  which 
lasted  for  five  days,  and  in  which  no  man  was  allowed  to 
participate.  A  festival  of  the  same  character  was  held 
annually  in  Rome  in  honor  of  Ceres.  Demeter  and  Ceres 
were  the  goddesses  of  fecundity.  In  Germany,  similar 
festivals  were  observed  up  to  the  Christian  middle  ages. 
These  were  consecrated  to  Frigga,  the  ancient  German 
goddess  of  fecundity,  and  here  also  men  were  excluded 
from  participation. 

In  Athens,  the  matriarchate  had  to  make  way  to  the 
patriarchate  at  an  early  period,  but  apparently  not  with- 
out strong  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  women.  The 
tragedy  of  the  transformation  is  pathetically  presented  in 
the  "Eumenides"  by  Aeschylus.  The  following  is  a 
synopsis  of  the  story:  Agamemnon,  King  of  Mycenae, 
husband  of  Klytaemnestra,  on  his  expedition  to  Troy, 
sacrifices  his  daughter  Iphigeneia,  in  obedience  to  a  com- 
mand of  the  oracle.  The  mother  is  enraged  over  the 
sacrifice  of  her  child  that,  in  accordance  with  natural  law, 
does  not  belong  to  her  husband,  and  during  Agamem- 
non's absence  she  accepts  Aeghistus  as  her  husband, 
thereby  not  committing  any  objectionable  act  according 


Woman  in  the  Past.  35 

to  the  ancient  laws.  When  Agamemnon  returns  to  My- 
cenae, after  an  absence  of  many  years,  he  is  murdered 
by  Aeghistus,  whom  Klytaemnestra  has  incited  to  this 
deed.  Orestes,  son  of  Agamemnon  and  Klytaemnestra, 
upon  a  command  from  Apollo  and  Minerva,  avenges  his 
father's  death  by  killing  his  mother  and  Aeghistus.  The 
Eumenides,  representing  the  old  maternal  law,  prosecute 
Orestes  for  the  murder  of  his  mother.  Apollo  and  Minerva 
— the  latter,  according  to  the  myth,  not  having  been 
born  by  a  mother,  since  she  sprang  from  the  head  of 
Zeus  in  full  armor — defend  Orestes,  for  they  represent 
the  new  paternal  law.  The  case  is  brought  before  the 
areopagus  and  the  following  dialogue  ensues  in  which  the 
two  conflicting  views  are  expressed : 

Eumenides:  The  prophet  (Apollo)  bade  thee  then  become  a 
matricide? 

Orestes :   Aye ;  and  I  never  yet  my  destiny  regretted. 

Eumenides:  When  judgment  will  be  given  thou  wilt  not  speak 
thus. 

Orestes :  Perhaps.    But  from  his  grave  my  father  will  send  aid. 

Eumenides:  What  hopest  from  the  dead  thou,  who  hast  killed 
thy  mother? 

Orestes :    She  had  been  guilty  of  a  double,  bloody  crime. 

Eumenides:   How  so?    Explain  unto  the  judges  what  you  mean? 

Orestes :   She  killed  her  husband  and  she  thereby  killed  my  father. 

Eumenides :   Her  crime  she  expiated  now,  but  you  still  live. 

Orestes:    Why  did  vou  fail  to  prosecute  her  while  she  lived? 

Eumenides :   She  was  no  blood  relation  to  the  man  she  killed. 

Orestes :   But  I,  so  you  assert,  am  of  my  mother's  blood. 

Eumenides'  Did  she,  thou  bloody  one,  not  bear  thee  'neath  her 
heart?  Wouldst  thou  thy  mother's  sacred  blood  deny? 

The  Eumenides  accordingly  do  not  recognize  the  right 
of  the  father  and  husband.  They  proclaim  maternal  law. 
That  Kleytaemnestra  caused  the  murder  of  her  husband 
seems  unimportant  to  them,  for  he  was  a  stranger  to 
her.  But  they  demand  punishment  of  the  matricide,  for 
by  killing  his  mother,  Orestes  committed  the  most  unpar- 
donable crime  that  could  be  committed  under  the  domi- 
nance of  the  gentile  organization.  Apollo,  on  the  other 
hand,  holds  the  opposite  point  of  view.  Upon  a  command 
from  Zeus  he  has  induced  Orestes  to  murder  his  own 
mother  to  avenge  the  patricide,  and  before  the  judges 
he  thus  defends  the  deed: 


36     Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate 

Then  say  I,  listen  ye  unto  my  word  of  justice: 

The  mother  is  not  procreatrix  to  her  child ; 

She  only  the  awakened  life  doth  keep  and  bear. 

The  father  is  the  procreator;  she  but  keeps 

The  forfeit  for  her  friend,  unless  a  god  destroy  it 

I  will  submit  a  proof  that  cannot  be  denied. 

For  one  can  have  a  father,  yet  no  mother  have. 

Minerva,  daughter  of  the  great  Olympian  Zeus. 

Within  the  darkness  of  a  mother's  womb  ne'er  rested, 

And  yet  no  goddess  e'er  gave  birth  to  fairer  offspring. 

According  to  Apollo,  then,  procreation  gives  the 
father  a  superior  right,  while  the  view  that  had  prevailed 
until  then  proclaimed  the  mother,  who  gives  life  to  the 
child  by  her  own  blood,  the  child's  sole  possessor,  and 
deemed  the  child's  father  a  mere  stranger  to  her.  There- 
fore, the  lEumine.des  reply  to  the  views  of  Apollo : 

Thou  overthrowest  forces  of  remotest  days  .... 

Thou,  the  young  god,  wouldst  us,  the  ancient  ones,  dethrone. 

The  judges  prepare  to  pronounce  their  verdict;  half 
of  them  favor  the  old  law  and  the  other  half  favor  the 
new,  giving  an  equal  number  of  votes  to  both  sides. 
There  Minerva  seizes  a  ballot  from  the  altar  and  casting 
it  into  the  urn  she  exclaims : 

Mine  is  the  right  to  utter  final  judgment  here, 
And  for  Orestes  I  cast  in  the  urn  this  stone ; 
For  unto  me  no  mother  was  who  gave  me  birth, 
Therefore  with  all  my  heart  all  manly  things  I  praise 
Excepting  marriage.    For  I  am  my  father's  quite. 
Less  criminal  I  deem  the  murder  of  this  woman, 
Because  her  husband  she  has  killed,  the  home's  maintainer. 
Though  even  be  the  vote,  Orestes  is  victorious. 

Another  myth  depicts  the  fall  of  the  matriarchate  in 
the  following  manner:  During  the  rule  of  Cecrops,  a 
double  miracle  occurred.  Simultaneously  an  olive-tree 
sprang  from  the  earth  at  one  place,  and  a  well  at  another. 
The  frightened  king  sent  a  messenger  to  Delphi  to  ques- 
tion the  oracle  concerning  the  meaning  of  these  miracles. 
The  reply  was :  The  olive-tree  represents  Minerva,  the 
water  represents  Neptune,  and  the  citizens  may  decide 
after  whom  of  the  two  deities  they  choose  to  name  their 
city.  Cecrops  summoned  the  popular  assembly,  in  which 
both  men  and  women  were  entitled  to  vote.  The  men 
voted  for  Neptune,  and  the  women  for  Minerva,  and  since 


Woman  in  the  Past  37 

the  women  had  a  majority  of  one  vote,  Minerva  was  vic- 
torious. Thereupon  Neptune  became  infuriated  and  let 
the  sea  flood  the  lands  of  the  Athenians.  To  appease  the 
fury  of  the  god,  the  Athenians  then  inflicted  threefold 
punishment  upon  their  women.  They  were  to  be  dis-' 
franchised,  their  children  were  no  longer  to  bear  their 
mother's  name,  and  they  themselves  should  no  longer  be 
called  Athenians.* 

Thus  the  new  order  was  established.  The  father 
became  the  head  of  the  family.  The  patriarchate  con- 
quered the  matriarchate. 

Legitimate  Wives  and  Courtesans  in  Athens. 

Just  as  the  transition  from  the  matriarchate  to  the 
patriarchate  was  accomplished  in  Athens,  it  was  accom- 
plished elsewhere  as  soon  as  a  similar  degree  of  develop- 
ment had  been  attained.  Woman  was  restricted  to  her 
home  and  isolated  in  special  rooms,  known  as  "gynacon- 
tis,"  in  which  she  dwelt.  She  even  was  excluded  from 
social  intercourse  with  the  men  who  visited  the  house ; 
in  fact,  this  was  the  special  object  of  her  isolation.  In 
the  Odyssee  we  find  this  change  in  customs  expressed. 
Thus  Telemachus  forbids  his  mother  to  be  present  among 
her  suitors,  and  utters  this  command : 
But  go  now  to  the  home,  and  attend  to  thy  household  affairs ; 
To  the  spinning  wheel  and  the  loom,  and  bid  thy  maids  be  assiduous 
At  the  task  that  to  them  were  allotted.  To  speak  is  the  privilege 

of  men, 
And  mine  is  especially  this  privilege,  for  I  am  the  lord  of  the  house!** 

This  was  the  prevailing  conception  in  Greece  at  the 
time.  Even  widows  were  subjected  to  the  rulership  of 
their  nearest  male  relatives,  and  were  not  even  free  to 
choose  a  husband.  Weary  of  the  long  waiting  imposed 
upon  them  by  the  clever  Penelope,  the  suitors  send  to 
Telemachus  their  spokesman,  Antonioos,  who  thus  voices 
their  demand: 

See  now,  the  suitors  inform  thee  that  thou  in  thy  heart  mayest 

know  it 
And  that  all  the  Achseans  may  of  the  fact  be  informed. 


*Backofen :   "The  Matriarchate." 
** Homer's  "Odyssee." 


38     Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate 

Send  thy  mother  hence,  and  command  her  to  take  as  her  husband 
Whom  she  chooses  to  take,  and  whom  her  father  selects.* 

At  this  period  woman's  freedom  has  come  to  an  end. 
When  she  leaves  the  house  she  must  veil  her  face — not 
to  waken  the  desires  of  some  other  man.  In  the  Oriental 
countries  where  sexual  passions  are  stronger,  as  a  result 
of  the  hot  climate,  this  method  of  isolation  is  still  carried 
to  the  extreme.  Among  the  ancients,  Athens  served  as  a 
pattern  of  the  new  order.  The  woman  shares  the  man's 
bed,  but  not  his  table.  She  does  not  address  him  by  his 
name,  but  calls  him  master ;  she  is  his  servant.  She  was 
not  allowed  to  appear  in  public  anywhere,  and  when 
walking  upon  the  streets  was  always  veiled  and  plainly 
dressed.  When  she  committed  adultery  she  was,  accord- 
ing to  Solon's  law,  condemned  to  pay  for  her  sin  either 
with  her  life,  or  with  her  liberty.  Her  husband  was 
entitled  to  sell  her  as  a  slave. 

The  position  of  Greek  women  of  those  days  is  power- 
fully expressed  in  Medea's  lamentation: 

"Of  all  creatures  that  have  soul  and  life 
We  women  nre  indeed  the  very  poorest. 
By  our  dowery  we're  obliged  to  purchase 
A  husband — and  what  then  is  far  worse  still, 
Henceforward  our  body  is  his  own 
Great  is  the  danger;  will  his  nature  be 
Evil  or  good?    Divorce  is  to  the  woman 
A  deep  disgrace.    Yet  she  may  not  say  nay. 
Unto  the  man  who  was  betrothed  to  her. 
And  when  she  comes  to  lands  with  unknown  customs, 
She  has  to  learn — for  no  one  teaches  her — 
To  understand  the  nature  of  her  husband. 
And  when  we  have  succeeded  in  all  this, 
And  our  loved  one  gladly  with  us  dwells, 
Then  our  lot  is  fair.    But  otherwise 
I'd  rather  far  be  dead. — Not  so  the  man. 
If  in  his  home  he  is  not  satisfied, 
He  finds  outside  the  home  what  pleases  him, 
With  friends  and  with  companions  of  his  age; 
But  we  must  always  seek  to  please  but  one. 
They  say  that  we  in  peace  and  safety  dwell, 
While  they  must  go  forth  to  the  battlefield. 
Mistaken  thought !    I  rather  thrice  would  fight, 
Than  only  once  give  birth  unto  a  child!" 


*Homer's  "Odyssee." 


Woman  in  the  Past  39 

Very  different  was  the  man's  lot.  While  the  man 
compelled  the  woman  to  abstain  absolutely  from  relations 
with  other  men,  for  the  purpose  of  insuring  the  legiti- 
macy of  his  heirs,  he  was  not  inclined  to  abstain  from 
relations  with  other  women.  Courtesanship  developed. 
Women  noted  for  their  beauty  and  intellect,  usually  for- 
eigners, preferred  a  free  life  in  the  most  intimate  associa- 
tion with  men  to  the  slavery  of  marriage.  Nor  was  their 
life  deemed  a  loathsome  one.  The  name  and  the  fame 
of  these  courtesans  who  associated  with  the  foremost 
men  of  Greece  and  took  part  in  their  intellectual  discus- 
sions and  in  their  banquets,  have  come  down  to  us 
through  history,  while  the  names  of  the  legitimate  wives 
are  lost  and  forgotten.  One  of  these  was  Aspasia,  the 
friend  of  the  famous  Pericles,  who  later  made  her  his 
wife.  Phryne  had  intimate  relations  with  Hyperides,  and 
served  Praxiteles,  one  of  the  foremost  sculptors  of  Greece, 
as  a  model  for  his  statue  of  Venus.  Danae  was  the 
mistress  of  Epicure,  Archoeanassa  was  Plato's.  Lais  of 
Corynth,  Gnethanea  and  others  were  equally  famous 
courtesans.  Every  one  of  the  famous  Greeks  had  inter- 
course with  these  courtesans.  It  was  part  and  parcel  of 
their  life.  The  great  orator  Demosthenes  in  his  oration 
against  Neaera  thus  characterized  the  sexual  relations 
of  Athenian  men :  "We  marry  women  to  have  legitimate 
children  and  to  have  faithful  guardians  of  our  homes,  we 
maintain  concubines  for  our  daily  service  and  comfort, 
and  courtesans  for  the  enjoyment  of  love."  The  wife 
was  only  destined  to  bear  offspring  and,  like  a  faithful 
dog,  to  guard  her  master's  house.  But  the  master  him- 
self lived  to  suit  his  pleasure.  In  many  cases  it  is  so  still. 

To  satisfy  the  demand  for  mercenary  women,  espe- 
cially among  the  younger  men,  prostitution  developed, 
an  institution  that  had  not  been  known  during  the  domi- 
nance of  the  matriarchate.  Prostitution  differs  from  free 
sexual  intercourse  by  the  fact  that  the  woman  yields 
her  body  in  return  for  material  gain,  be  it  to  one  man 
or  to  a  number  of  men.  Prostitution  exists  wherever  a 
woman  makes  the  selling  of  her  charms  a  trade.  Solon, 
who  formulated  the  new  laws  for  Athens  and  is  famed  as 
the  founder  of  these  laws,  introduced  the  public  brothel, 


40     Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate 

the  "deikterion."  He  decreed  that  the  price  should  be 
the  same  to  all  visitors.  According  to  Philemon  this 
was  one  obolus,  about  6  cents  in  American  money.  The 
"deikterion"  was  a  place  of  absolute  safety,  like  the 
temples  in  Greece  and  Rome  and  the  Christian  churches 
in  the  middle  ages.  It  was  under  the  immediate  pro- 
tection of  the  public  authorities.  Until  about  150  B.  C. 
the  temple  in  Jerusalem  was  the  general  rallying-point 
of  the  prostitutes. 

For  the  boon  bestowed  upon  Athenian  men  by  his 
founding  of  the  "deikterion,"  one  of  Solon's  contempo- 
raries thus  sings  his  praise :  "Solon,  be  praised !  For 
thou  didst  purchase  public  women  for  the  welfare  of  the 
city,  to  preserve  the  morals  of  the  city  that  is  full  of 
strong,  young  men,  who,  without  thy  wise  institution, 
would  indulge  in  the  annoying  pursuit  of  the  better  class 
women."  We  will  see  that  in  our  own  day  exactly  the 
same  arguments  are  being  advanced  to  justify  the  exist- 
ence of  prostitution  and  its  maintenance  as  an  institution 
sanctioned  by  the  state.  Thus  the  state  laws  approved 
of  deeds  committed  by  men  as  being  their  natural  right, 
while  the  same  deeds  were  branded  as  criminal  and 
despicable  when  committed  by  women.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  even  to-day  there  are  a  great  many  men 
who  prefer  the  company  of  a  pretty  offendress  to  the 
company  of  their  wife  and  who,  nevertheless,  enjoy  the 
reputation  of  being  "pillars  of  society"  and  guardians  of 
those  sacred  institutions,  the  family  and  the  home.  To 
be  sure,  the  Greek  women  frequently  seem  to  have  taken 
vengeance  upon  their  husbands  for  their  oppression.  If 
prostitution  is  the  complement  of  monogamic  marriage 
on  the  one  hand,  adultery  of  wives  and  cuckoldom  of 
husbands  are  its  complements  on  the  other.  Among  the 
Greek  dramatists,  Euripides  seems  to  have  been  the  most 
pronounced  woman-hater,  since  in  his  dramas  he  prefer- 
ably holds  up  the  women  to  ridicule  and  scorn.  What 
accusations  he  hurls  at  them  can  best  be  seen  from  a 
passage  in  "The  Thesmophoria"  by  Aristophanes,  where 
a  Greek  woman  assails  him  in  the  following  manner: 


*"Comedies  by  Aristophanes." 


Woman  in  the  Past  41 

With  what  calumny  doth  he  (Euripides)  not  vilify  us  women? 

When  e'er  hath  silent  been  the  slanderer's  tongue? 

Where  there's  an  audience,  tragedy  and  chorus, 

We  are  described  as  man-mad  traitoresses, 

Fond  of  the  cup,  deceitful,  talkative. 

We're  wholly  bad,  to  men  a  tribulation. 

Therefore,  when  from  the  play  our  husbands  come,* 

They  look  distrustfully  at  us  and  search  about 

If  somewhere  not  a  lover  is  concealed, 

And  henceforth  we  no  longer  are  permitted 

To  do  what  harmlessly  we  did  before. 

Such  wicked  things  he  tells  the  men  about  us, 

That  when  a  woman  only  makes  a  garland, 

They  think  she  is  in  love ;  or  when  at  home 

She  works  about  and  dropping  something,  breaks  it, 

The  husband  promptly  asks :  ""For  whom  this  broken  glass  ? 

Quite  evidently  for  the  guest  from  Corinth." 

It  is  not  surprising  that  the  eloquent  Greek  woman 
thus  serves  the  defamer  of  her  sex.    But  Euripides  could 
hardly  have  made  such  accusations  nor  would  they  have 
found  belief  among  the  men,  had  it  not  been  well  known 
that  they  were  justified.    Judging  by  the  final  sentences 
of  the  above  quoted  harangue  it  seems  that  the  custom, 
well  known  in  Germany  and  other  countries,  whereby 
the  master  of  the  house  honors  his  guest  by  placing  his 
own  wife  or  daughter  at  the  guest's  disposal,  did  not 
prevail  in  Greece.    Of  this  custom,  that  was  still  observed 
in  Holland  in  the  fifteenth  century,  Murner  says:   "It  is 
the  custom  in  the  Netherlands  that  whosoever  hath  a 
dear  guest,  unto  him  he  giveth  his  wife  in  good  faith."** 
The  increasing  class  struggle  in  the  Greek  states  and 
the  deplorable  conditions  that  existed  in  many  of  these 
small  communities  led  Plato  to  an  investigation  of  the 
best  constitution  of  the  state  and  its  institutions.    In  his 
"State,"  that  he  conceives  as  an  ideal  one,  he  demands 
that  among  the  highest  class  of  citizens,  the  guardians, 
women  should  hold  a  position  of  absolute  equality.    Like 
the  men,  they  should  take  part  in  military  exercises  and 
should  perform  all  civic  duties,  only  should  the  lighter 


*The  theatre,  to  which  Greek  women  were  not  admitted. 

**<rGerman  History  of  Manners  and  Civilization,"  by  Johann 
Scherr  Sudermann  deals  with  the  same  subject  in  his  drama, 
"Honor." 


42     Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate 

tasks  be  alloted  to  them  on  account  of  the  weakness  of 
their  sex.  He  holds  that  the  natural  abilities  are  the 
same  with  both  sexes,  that  woman  is  only  weaker  than 
man.  He  further  demands  that  the  women  should  belong 
to  all  the  men  in  common  as  should  also  the  children,  so 
that  no  father  might  know  his  child  nor  a  child  its 
father.* 

The  views  of  Aristoteles  are  more  in  keeping  with 
the  bourgeois  conceptions.  According  to  his  "Politics," 
every  woman  should  have  the  right  of  freely  choosing  her 
husband.  She  should  be  subservient  to  him,  yet  she 
should  have  the  privilege  of  giving  him  good  advice. 
Thucydides  expresses  a  view  that  meets  with  the  ap- 
proval of  all  Philistines.  He  says :  "To  that  wife  is  due 
the  highest  praise  of  whom  one  speaks  neither  well  nor 
ill  outside  of  her  home." 

While  such  views  prevailed  women  were  bound  to 
sink  lower  and  lower  in  the  esteem  of  men.  A  fear  of 
excess  of  population  even  led  men  to  avoid  intimate  inter- 
course with  women.  An  unnatural  satisfaction  of  sexual 
desires  was  the  result.  The  Greek  states  consisted  mainly 
of  cities  having  very  limited  landed  property,  and  it  there- 
fore was  impossible  to  maintain  the  population  at  their 
accustomed  nourishment  beyond  a  given  number.  This 
fear  of  excess  of  population  caused  Aristotle  to  advice 
the  men  to  shun  their  wives  and  to  indulge  in  sodomy 
instead.  Before  him  Socrates  had  already  extolled 
sodomy  as  a  mark  of  superior  culture.  Finally  the  fore- 
most men  of  Greece  indulged  in  this  unnatural  passion. 
The  esteem  of  woman  sank  to  its  lowest  level.  Bawdy 
houses  containing  male  prostitutes  were  maintained,  be- 
side those  containing  female  prostitutes.  It  was  in  such 
a  social  atmosphere  that  Thucydides  could  say  of  woman 
that  she  was  worse  than  the  sea  raging  in  storm,  worse 
than  the  fire's  fierce  glow  and  the  mountain  torrent's 
rushing  stream.  "If  it  is  a  god  who  invented  woman, 
whoever  he  be,  let  him  know  that  he  is  the  nefarious 
originator  of  the  greatest  evil/' 

While   the   men    of    Greece   practiced    sodomy,   the 


*Plato:    "The  State." 


Woman  in  the  Past  43 

women  drifted  into  the  opposite  extreme,  indulging  in  the 
love  of  their  own  sex.  This  was  especially  the  case 
among  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  of  Lesbos,  wherefore 
this  aberration  was  called  Lesbian  love  and  is  still  called 
so,  since  it  is  by  no  means  extinct  but  continues  to  exist 
among  us.  The  chief  representative  of  this  "love"  was 
the  celebrated  poetess  Sapho,  ''the  Lesbian  nightinggale," 
who  lived  about  600  B.  C.  Her  passion  is  fervently  ex- 
pressed in  her  Ode  to  Venus : 

"Thou  who  rulest  all,  upon  flowers  enthroned, 
Daughter  of  Zeus  born  of  foam,  o  thou  artful  one, 
Hark  to  my  call ! 

Not  in  anguish  and  bitter  suffering,  O  goddess, 
Let  me  perish! — " 

Still  more  passionate  is  the  sensuality  expressed  in 
the  ode  to  the  beautiful  Athis. 

While  in  Athens  and  other  Greek  states  the  patriarchal 
system  prevailed,  in  Sparta,  Athen's  greatest  rival,  we 
still  find  the  matriarchate,  a  condition  which  had  become 
entirely  foreign  to  most  Greeks.  Tradition  has  it  that 
one  day  a  Greek  asked  a  Spartan  how  the  crime  of 
adultery  was  punished  in  Sparta ;  whereupon  the  Spartan 
replied :  "Stranger,  there  are  no  adulterers  in  our  midst." 
"But  if  there  should  be  one?"  quoth  the  stranger. 
"Then,"  said  the  Spartan  mockingly,  "his  penalty  would 
be  to  give  an  ox,  so  tall  that  he  could  stretch  his  neck 
acros  the  Taygetus  and  drink  from  the  Eurotas."  Upon 
the  astonished  query  of  the  stranger  how  an  ox  could  be 
so  tall,  the  Spartan  laughingly  replied:  "How  can  there 
be  an  adulterer  in  Sparta?!"  The  dignified  self-conscious- 
ness of  the  Spartan  women  finds  expression  in  the  reply 
given  to  a  stranger  by  the  wife  of  Leonidas.  The 
stranger  said  to  her:  "You  Lacedemonian  women  are  the 
only  ones  who  rule  over  men."  To  this  she  replied :  "And 
we  are  the  only  women  who  bring  forth  men." 

The  freedom  enjoyed  by  women  during  the  matri- 
archate heightened  their  beauty  and  increased  their 
pride,  their  dignity  and  their  self-reliance.  There  is  a 
uniformity  of  opinion  among  ancient  writers  that  these 
attributes  were  highly  developed  in  women  during  the 
matriarchal  period.  The  condition  of  servitude  that  fol- 


44     Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate 

lowed  naturally  had  a  deteriorating  influence.  The 
change  is  manifested  even  in  the  difference  of  dress  that 
marks  the  two  periods.  The  dress  of  the  Doric  woman 
hung  loosely  from  her  shoulders,  leaving  her  arms  and 
the  lower  part  of  her  legs  uncovered.  It  is  the  dress 
worn  by  Diana  as  she  is  represented  in  our  museums,  a 
free  and  daring  figure.  But  the  Ionic  dress  covers  the 
figure  completely  and  restrains  the  motions.  The  man- 
ner in  which  women  dress  was  and  is  to  this  day  a  proof 
of  their  dependence  and  a  cause  of  their  helplessness  to 
a  far  greater  extent  than  is  generally  assumed.  The 
style  of  dress  worn  by  women  to  this  day  makes  them 
clumsy  and  gives  them  a  feeling  of  weakness  that  is  ex- 
pressed in  their  carriage  and  their  character.  The  Spar- 
tan custom  of  permitting  girls  to  go  about  naked  until 
maturity — a  custom  that  was  made  possible  by  the 
climate  of  the  country — had  the  effect,  so  an  ancient 
writer  tells  us,  of  teaching  them  simplicity  of  taste  and 
regard  for  the  care  of  their  bodies.  According  to  the 
views  of  the  time,  this  custom  did  not  shock  the  sense 
of  decency  or  arouse  physical  passions.  The  girls  also 
took  part  in  all  physical  exercises  just  like  the  boys. 
Thus  a  strong,  self-respecting  race  was  reared,  conscious 
of  their  worth,  as  is  shown  in  the  reply  given  to  the 
stranger  by  the  wife  of  Leonidas. 

4 — Remnants  of  the  Matriarchate  in  the  Customs  of 
Various  Nations. 

Certain  customs  are  closely  linked  with  the  vanished 
matriarchate  that  modern  writers  have  erroneously 
termed  "prostitution."  In  Babylon,  for  instance,  it  was 
a  religious  duty  for  young  girls  upon  reaching  maturity 
to  go  to  the  temple  of  Mylitta  and  there  yield  to  some 
man,  making  a  sacrifice  of  their  virginity.  Similar  cus- 
toms were  observed  in  the  Serapis  of  Memphis,  in  honor 
of  the  goddess  Anaitis  in  Armenia,  in  Tyrus  and  Sydon 
in  honor  of  Astarte  or  Venus.  The  Egyptian  festivals 
of  Iris  were  accompanied  by  the  same  religious  rites. 
This  sacrifice  of  virginity  was  deemed  an  atonement  to 
the  goddess  for  the  exclusiveness  of  surrender  to  one  man 


Woman  in  the  Past  45 

in  marriage.  "For  woman  is  not  endowed  with  all  the 
beauties  nature  has  bestowed  upon  her,  to  fade  in  the 
arms  of  a  single  man.  The  law  of  substance  condemns 
all  restrictions,  hates  all  fetters,  and  considers  exclusive- 
ness  a  crime  against  its  divinity."*  The  continued  good 
will  of  the  goddess  must  be  purchased  by  this  sacrifice 
of  virginity  to  a  stranger.  In  conformity  with  this  con- 
ception the  Libyan  maidens  earned  their  dowery  by  their 
surrender.  According  to  the  matriarchate  they  enjoyed 
sexual  liberty  before  marriage,  and  the  men,  far  from 
taking  offense  at  this  pursuit,  in  choosing  a  wife  gave 
preference  to  the  girl  who  had  been  most  desired.  The 
same  condition  existed  among  the  Thracians  at  the  time 
of  Herodotus.  "They  do  not  guard  the  maidens,  but 
give  them  complete  freedom  to  have  relations  with 
whomever  they  choose.  But  the  married  women  are 
closely  guarded.  They  buy  them  from  their  parents  for 
a  large  portion."  The  Hierodules  in  the  temple  of  Venus 
in  Corynth  were  far  famed.  There  more  than  a  thou- 
sand girls  were  assembled,  constituting  the  chief  attrac- 
tion for  Greek  men.  Of  the  daughter  of  King  Cheops 
of  Egypt  the  legend  relates,  that  she  had  a  pyramid  built 
from  the  proceeds  obtained  by  the  abandonment  of  her 
charms. 

We  still  find  similar  conditions  in  existence  in  the 
Marquesas  Islands,  in  the  Philippines  and  Polynesia, 
and,  according  to  Waitz,  among  various  African  tribes. 
Another  custom,  which  was  maintained  on  the  Balearic 
Islands  up  to  recent  times  and  that  expressed  the  right 
of  all  men  to  every  woman,  was  that  in  the  bridal  night 
all  the  men  related  to  the  bride,  were  admitted  to  her 
successively  in  accordance  with  their  ages.  The  groom 
came  last.  Among  other  peoples  this  custom  has  been 
changed  to  that  effect,  that  one  man  representing  the 
others,  the  high  priest  or  chieftain  of  the  tribe,  exercises 
this  privilege  with  the  bride.  The  Claimars  in  Malabar 
engage  putamares  (priests)  to  deflour  their  wives.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  chief  priest  (namburi)  to  render  this 
service  to  the  king  (zamorin)  upon  his  marriage,  and  the 


*Backofen:    "The  Matriarchate." 


46     Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate 

king  pays  for  it  with  fifty  pieces  of  gold.*  In  India  and 
on  various  islands  of  the  Pacific  either  the  priests  or  the 
tribal  chiefs  (kings)  perform  this  office.**  It  is  the  same 
in  Senegambia,  where  the  tribal  chief  practices  the 
defloration  of  virgins  as  one  of  his  official  duties  and 
receives  presents  in  return.  Among  other  peoples  the 
defloration  of  the  virgin — sometimes  even  of  female 
babies — is  accomplished  by  idols  constructed  for  this  pur- 
pose. We  may  assume  that  the  "jus  primae  noctis" 
(right  of  the  first  night),  which  was  in  practice  in  Europe 
until  far  into  the  middle  ages,  derived  its  origin  from 
the  same  tradition.  The  landlord,  considering  himself 
master  over  his  serfs,  practiced  the  right  of  the  tribal 
chief  that  had  come  down  to  him.  We  will  return  to 
this  subject  later  on. 

Remnants  of  the  matriarchate  are  also  seen  in  a 
peculiar  custom  of  South  American  tribes,  that  has  like- 
wise been  met  with  among  the  Basques,  a  people  that 
have  preserved  many  ancient  customs  and  practices. 
Here  the  father  takes  to  his  bed,  instead  of  the  mother, 
after  the  birth  of  a  child,  feigns  being  in  labor-pain,  and 
lets  the  woman  care  for  him.  The  custom  designates  that 
the  father  recognizes  the  newly  born  child  as  his  own. 
The  same  custom  is  said  to  exist  among  several  tribes  of 
mountaineers  in  China,  and  it  existed  until  a  recent  date 
in  Corsica. 

In  the  records  of  German  colonies  submitted  to  parlia- 
ment (during  its  session  1904-05)  there  is  a  report  of  the 
South-West-African  region  that  contains  the  following 
passage:  "The  tribal  chief  in  a  Herero  village  cannot 
decide  upon  the  slightest  matter  without  the  advice  of 
his  council,  and  not  only  the  men  but  generally  the 
women  also  give  their  advice."  In  the  report  of  the 
Marshall  Islands  it  says:  Rulership  over  all  the  islands 
of  the  Marshall  groups  was  never  concentrated  upon  a 
single  chief  ....  but  as  there  is  no  female  member  of  this 
class  (The  Irody)  living,  and  the  child  inherits  nobility 
and  station  from  the  mother  only,  The  Irodies  will  be- 


*K.   Kautsky:    "Origin  of  Marriage  and  the  Family.     Kosmos, 
1883. 

**Mantagazza :   "Love  in  Human  Society." 


Woman  in  the  Past  47 

come  extinct  with  the  death  of  their  chiefs."  The  man- 
ner of  expression  and  description  used  by  the  informants 
shows  how  utterly  foreign  the  conditions  they  describe 
are  to  them  and  that  they  fail  to  understand  them.* 

Dr.  Henry  Weislocky,  who  for  many  years  lived  among 
the  Gypsies  of  Transylvania  and  finally  was  adopted  into 
one  of  their  tribes,  reports,**  that  two  of  the  four  tribes 
in  whose  midst  he  lived,  the  Ashani  and  the  Ishale,  ob- 
served maternal  law.  If  the  migratory  Gipsy  marries, 
he  enters  the  clan  of  his  wife,  and  to  her  belong  all  the 
furnishings  of  the  Gipsy  household.  Whatever  wealth 
she  has  belongs  to  her  and  to  her  clan,  the  man  is  a 
stranger.  In  accordance  with  maternal  law  the  children 
also  remain  in  their  mother's  clan.  Even  in  modern  Ger- 
many remnants  of  the  matriarchate  survive.  The  "West- 
deutsche  Rundschau"  (published  in  Westphalia)  reports 
in  the  issue  of  June  10,  1902,  that  in  the  parish  of  Haltern 
the  laws  of  inheritance  were  still  subject  to  the  old 

*Similar  conditions  are  still  met  with  in  Camerun  and  in  other 
parts  of  Western  Africa.  A  German  naval  surgeon  who  studied  the 
land  and  people  from  his  own  observations  sends  us  the  following 
information :  "Among  a  great  many  tribes  the  right  of  inheritance  is 
founded  on  maternity.  Paternity  is  a  matter  of  indifference,  only 
children  of  the  same  mother  consider  one  another  brothers  and 
sisters.  A  man  does  not  will  his  property  to  his  own  children,  but 
to  his  sisters'  children,  his  nephews  and  nieces,  who  can  be  shown 
to  be  his  nearest  blood  relations.  A  chief  of  the  Way  tribe  explained 
to  me  in  broken  English:  'My  sister  and  I  surely  are  blood  rela- 
tions, for  we  are  children  of  the  same  mother.  My  sister  again 
surely  is  the  blood  relation  of  her  son.  So  her  son  is  my  heir,  and 
when  I  die  he  will  be  king  of  my  town;  'And  your  father?'  I  asked. 
'I  do  not  know  what  that  is,  my  father/  he  replied.  When  I  then 
went  on  to  ask  him  whether  he  had  no  children  of  his  own,  he  was 
convulsed  with  laughter  and  replied  that  with  them  not  men  but 
only  women  had  children.  I  can  assure  you,"  our  informant  goes  on 
to  say,  "that  even  the  heir  of  King  Bell  in  Camerun  is  not  his  son, 
but  his  nephew.  The  children  of  Bell,  many  of  whom  are  being 
trained  in  German  cities,  are  but  the  children  of  his  wives,  while 
their  fathers  are  unknown.  One  of  them  I  might  lay  claim  to 
myself." — How  are  the  people  who  deny  the  existence  of  maternal 
law  impressed  by  this  description  of  present-day  conditions?!  Our 
informant  is  a  keen  observer  who  goes  to  the  bottom  of  things.  But 
few  who  live  among  these  savages  do  so.  Therefore  we  are  given 
such  false  descriptions  of  the  alleged  "immorality"  of  the  natives. 

**H.  v.  Weislocky :  ''Sketches  of  the  Life  of  the  Transylvanian 
Gypsies." 


48     Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate 

maternal  law  of  the  gentes.  The  children  inherit  from 
their  mother.  Until  now  all  attempts  at  reforming  this 
antiquated  custom  had  failed. 

How  little  the  present  family  form  and  monogamic 
marriage  can  be  regarded  as  eternal  or  exceedingly  an- 
cient, can  furthemore  be  gathered  from  the  wide-spread 
existence  of  marriage  by  purchase,  marriage  by  rape, 
polygamy  and  polyandry.  In  Greece,  too,  woman  be- 
came an  article  of  purchase.  As  soon  as  she  entered 
the  house  of  her  lord  and  master  she  ceased  to  exist  for 
her  family.  This  was  symbolically  expressed  by  burning 
before  her  husband's  house  the  gaily  decorated  carriage 
that  had  brought  her  there.  Among  the  Ostiaks  in 
Siberia  the  father  still  sells  his  daughter  and  bargains 
with  the  envoys  of  the  groom  over  the  sum  that  is  to  be 
paid.  Among  several  African  tribes  the  custom  still 
exists — as  in  Jacob's  day — that  a  man  wooing  a  maiden 
enters  the  service  of  his  prospective  mother-in-law.  Mar- 
riage by  purchase  still  exists  in  our  very  midst,  in  fact, 
in  bourgeois  society  it  is  more  generally  established  than 
at  any  other  time.  The  money  marriages,  so  prevalent 
among  our  propertied  classes,  are  nothing  more  than 
marriage  by  purchase.  As  a  symbol  of  the  purchase 
whereby  the  woman  becomes  the  man's  property,  the 
bridal  gift,  which  it  is  customary  for  the  man  to  give  his 
fiancee,  may  also  be  regarded. 

Beside  marriage  by  purchase  we  find  marriage  by 
rape.  Robbery  of  women  was  practiced  not  only  by  the 
ancient  Jews,  but  practically  by  all  nations  of  antiquity. 
The  best-known  historical  example  is  the  rape  of  the 
Sabines,  by  the  Romans.  Robbery  of  women  became 
the  custom  quite  naturally  wherever  women  were  scarce 
or  where  polygamy  existed,  as  everywhere  in  the  Orient. 
There  especially  this  custom  was  wide-spread  during  the 
duration  of  the  Arabian  realm  from  the  seventh  to  the 
twelfth  century  before  Christ. 

In  a  symbolical  way  marriage  by  rape  is  still  practised 
among  the  Araunanians  in  the  southern  part  of  Chile. 
While  the  would-be  bridegroom's  friends  bargain  with 
the  girl's  father,  the  man  himself  slinks  about  the  house 
and  tries  to  catch  the  girl.  As  soon  as  he  has  grasped 


Woman  in  the  Past  49 

her  he  lifts  her  on  his  horse  and  carries  her  away  toward 
the  forest.  Thereupon  men,  women  and  children  set  up 
a  loud  clamor  and  try  to  prevent  the  flight.  But  as  soon 
as  the  man  has  succeeded  in  reaching  the  shelter  of  the 
forest  the  woman  is  considered  his  wife.  This  is  the 
case  even  if  the  robbery  was  perpetrated  against  the 
parents'  will.  Similar  customs  are  met  with  among 
Australian  tribes. 

Among  civilized  nations  the  custom  of  wedding  jour- 
neys still  serves  as  a  reminder  of  the  ancient  rape  of 
women;  the  bride  is  abducted  from  her  paternal  hearth. 
In  the  same  way  the  exchange  of  wedding  rings  is  a 
symbol  of  the  old  submissiveness  of  woman  and  her 
being  chained  to  the  man.  This  custom  originated  in 
Rome.  The  bride  received  an  iron  ring  from  her  husband 
to  signify  that  she  was  chained  to  him.  Later  on  this 
ring  was  made  of  gold,  and  much  later  still  the  exchange 
of  rings  was  introduced  to  signify  the  mutual  bond. 

Polygamy  has  existed  and  still  exists  among  the 
Orientals;  but  owing  to  the  limited  number  of  women 
that  are  at  a  man's  disposal,  and  owing  to  the  expense 
of  their  maintenance,  it  is  at  present  practised  only  by 
the  privileged  and  propertied  classes.  The  counter-part 
of  polygamy  is  polyandry.  This  is  found  especially 
among  the  mountaineers  of  Thibet,  the  Garras  living  at 
the  boundary  of  India  and  China,  the  Baigas  in  God- 
wana,  the  Nairs  in  the  southernmost  part  of  India,  arid 
also  among  the  Eskimos  and  Aleuts.  Descent  is  deter- 
mined on  the  mother's  side — as  must  needs  be  the  case — 
and  the  children  belong  to  her.  The  woman's  husbands 
usually  are  brothers.  If  an  oldest  brother  marries,  the 
other  brothers  thereby  become  husbands  to  his  wife. 
But  she  has  the  right  to  take  other  husbands  beside  these. 
The  men  also  are  entitled  to  several  wives.  From  what 
conditions  polyandry  sprang  is  as  yet  unexplained.  As 
the  tribes  practising  polyandry  without  exception  live 
either  in  mountainous  regions  of  a  high  altitude  or  in 
the  frigid  zone,  polyandry  may  perhaps  be  explained 
by  a  phenomenon  that  Tarnowsky  has  pointed  out.*  Tar- 

*Tarnowsky:    "Pathological  Phenomena  of  Sexual  Desire." 


5O    Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate 

nowsgy  was  told  by  reliable  travelers  that  a  lengthy 
sojourn  on  high  altitudes  greatly  diminishes  sexual 
desire,  which  reawakens  with  renewed  vigor  upon 
descending.  This  diminution  of  sexual  desire,  so  Tar- 
nowsky  believes,  might  explain  the  slow  increase  in  popu- 
lation in  mountainous  regions,  and  by  becoming  heredi- 
tary might  be  one  of  the  symptoms  of  degeneration  lead- 
ing to  perversity. 

Continuous  living  in  high  altitudes  or  in  frigid  zones 
might  in  the  same  manner  signify  that  polyandry  did 
not  make  extraordinary  demands  on  women.  Women 
themselves  are  influenced  accordingly  by  their  nature, 
since  among  Eskimo  girls  menstruation,  as  a  rule,  does 
not  set  in  until  the  nineteenth  year,  while  in  the  torrid 
zone  it  sets  in  with  the  ninth  or  tenth  year,  and  in  the 
temperate  zone  between  the  fourteenth  and  sixteenth 
year.  It  is  generally  known  that  hot  countries  have  a 
stimulating  effect  upon  sexual  desire :  that  is  why  poly- 
gamy is  especially  prevalent  in  hot  countries.  In  the 
same  way  cold  lands,  and  high  altitudes  having  a  similar 
climate,  may  have  a  restrictive  influence.  It  is  also  a 
matter  of  experience  that  conception  is  less  frequent 
when  a  woman  has  cohabitation  with  several  men.  The 
increase  in  population  is,  therefore,  weak  where  poly- 
andry exists,  and  is  adapted  to  the  difficulty  of  obtain- 
ing food  in  cold  climes  and  high  altitudes.  This  goes  to 
show  that  even  in  regard  to  this  strange  custom  of  poly- 
andry, the  relations  of  the  sexes  are  in  the  last  instance 
determined  by  the  methods  of  production.  It  still  re- 
mains to  be  investigated  whether  the  frequent  killing 
of  female  infants  is  practised  among  the  tribes  living  in 
mountainous  regions  or  in  the  frigid  zone,  as  has  been 
reported  of  Mongolian  tribes  living  in  the  mountainous 
regions  of  China. 

5. — Rise  of  the  State. — Dissolution  of  the  Gens  in  Rome. 

After  the  dissolution  of  the  matriarchal  gens,  the 
patriarchal  gens  took  its  place  with  considerably  dimin- 
ished functions.  The  chief  function  of  the  patriarchal 
gens  was  the  strict  observation  of  common  religious  and 
funeral  rites  and  mutual  aid  and  protection.  It  entailed 


Woman  in  the  Past  51 

the  right,  and  sometimes  the  duty,  to  marry  within  the 
gens ;  the  latter  being  the  case  especially  in  regard  to 
rich  heiresses  and  orphans.  The  gens  also  controlled  all 
the  remaining  common  property. 

With  the  rise  of  private  property  and  the  right  of 
inheritance  connected  with  it,  class  distinctions  and  class 
antagonism  came  into  existence.  In  the  course  of  time 
the  propertied  members  made  common  cause  against  the 
propertyless  ones.  The  former  sought  to  gain  control  of 
the  administrative  positions  and  to  make  them  heredi- 
tary. Finance  had  become  a  necessity  and  entailed  con- 
ditions of  indebtedness  that  had  previously  been  un- 
known. Struggles  against  external  enemies,  internal 
conflicts  of  interest,  and  the  varied  interests  and  rela- 
tions created  by  agriculture,  industry  and  trade,  necessi- 
tated a  complicated  system  of  laws  and  the  formation  of 
public  bodies  destined  to  keep  the  social  machine  in 
orderly  motion  and  to  settle  disputes.  The  same  was 
true  concerning  the  relations  of  masters  and  slaves, 
debtors  and  creditors.  Thus  a  power  was  needed  to  con- 
trol all  these  relations,  to  conduct,  regulate,  arbitrate, 
protect  and  punish.  The  state  came  into  existence  as  a 
necessary  product  of  the  new  social  order  based  on  con- 
flicting interests.  Its  direction  naturally  was  assumed  by 
those  who  had  the  greatest  interest  in  its  founding  and 
who,  thanks  to  their  social  power,  were  most  influential : 
the  propertied  classes.  Thus  aristocracy  of  wealth  and 
democracy  opposed  one  another,  even  where  complete 
equality  of  political  rights  was  maintained. 

During  the  old  matriarchal  system  no  written  law 
existed.  Conditions  were  simple  and  custom  was  hal- 
lowed. In  the  new,  far  more  complicated  order,  written 
law  became  one  of  the  urgent  necessities  and  special 
officials  were  needed  for  its  administration.  But  as  the 
legal  relations  became  more  and  more  complicated,  a 
special  class  of  persons  arose,  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
study  of  law  and  having  a  special  interest  in  still  further 
complicating  them.  The  jurists,  the  lawyers,  came  into 
existence,  and  owing  to  the  importance  of  the  law  to  the 
body  social,  they  soon  became  one  of  the  most  influential 
estates.  The  new  civic  jurisprudence  in  the  course  of 


-  Of 


52     Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate 

time  found  its  most  classic  expression  in  the  Roman 
state,  that  explains  the  influence  exerted  by  Roman  law 
down  to  the  present  time. 

We  see  then  that  the  state  organization  is  the  natural 
outcome  of  a  society  divided  into  a  great  variety  of  occu- 
pations and  having  varied,  frequently  opposing  and  con- 
tending, interests.  An  inevitable  result  was  oppression 
of  the  weaker  members.  This  truth  was  recognized  by 
the  Nabastaeans,  an  Arabian  tribe,  who,  according  to 
Diodorus,  issued  the  command  neither  to  sow  nor  to 
plant,  to  drink  no  wine,  and  to  build  no  houses,  but  to 
live  in  tents,  for  if  they  did  all  these  things  they  might  be 
compelled  to  obey  by  a  superior  power  (the  state). 
Among  the  Rachebites,  the  descendants  of  the  father-in- 
law  of  Moses,  we  find  similar  decrees.*  In  fact,  Mosaic 
law  is  framed  in  a  manner  destined  to  prevent  the  Jews 
from  developing  beyond  the  stage  of  an  agricultural 
society,  because  their  lawmakers  feared  that  it  might 
bring  about  the  downfall  of  their  democratic,  commun- 
istic organization.  For  the  same  reasons  the  "holy  land" 
was  selected  in  a  territory  that  was  bounded  on  the  one 
side  by  a  mountain  range  which  was  difficult  of  access,  the 
Libanon,  and  on  the  other,  especially  in  the  East  and 
South,  by  barren  lands  and  a  desert,  making  isolation  pos- 
sible. For  the  same  reasons,  moreover,  the  Jews  were  kept 
at  a  distance  from  the  sea,  which  is  favorable  to  com- 
merce, colonization  and  the  acquirement  of  wealth.  For 
the  same  reasons  there  were  strict  laws  forbidding  ming- 
ling and  intermarriage  with  other  nations;  and  the  poor 
laws,  the  agrarian  laws,  the  year  of  jubilee,  all  were  insti- 
tutions destined  to  prevent  the  acquirement  of  great  for- 
tunes by  individuals.  The  Jews  were  to  be  prevented 
from  becoming  a  state-forming  nation.  That  is  why  the 
old  gentile  constitution  founded  on  tribal  organization 
was  maintained  by  them  until  their  dissolution,  and  has 
left  its  traces  among  them  even  to-day. 

Apparently  the  Latin  tribes  who  participated  in  the 
foundation  of  Rome  had  already  superseded  the  matri- 
archal development.  As  previously  stated,  they  robbed 

*"Mosaic  Law,"  by  John  David  Michaelis. 


Woman  in  the  Past  53 

the  women  who  were  wanting  among  them  from  the 
tribe  of  the  Sabines  and  called  themselves  Quirites  after 
these.  At  a  much  later  date  the  Roman  citizens  in  the 
popular  assembly  were  still  addressed  as  Quirites. 
"Populus  Romanus"  designated  the  free  population  of 
Rome  generally;  but  "populus  Romanus  quiritium"  des- 
ignated Roman  citizenship  by  descent.  The  Roman  gens 
was  patriarchal ;  the  children  inherited  from  their  natural 
parent.  In  case  there  were  no  children  the  property  fell 
to  relatives  on  the  man's  side,  and  if  these  were  wanting, 
it  fell  to  the  gens.  By  marriage  the  woman  lost  all  rights 
of  inheritance  to  her  father's  property  and  that  of  her 
father's  brothers.  She  withdrew  from  her  gens,  and  thus 
neither  she  nor  her  children  could  inherit  from  her  father 
or  his  brothers.  Otherwise  the  hereditary  portion  would 
have  been  lost  to  the  paternal  gens.  The  division  into 
gentes  and  phratries  for  centuries  remained  the  founda- 
tion of  military  organization  and  the  enactment  of  civic 
rights.  But  with  the  decay  of  the  patriarchal  gentes  and 
the  decline  of  their  significance,  conditions  became  more 
favorable  to  Roman  women.  They  not  only  obtained 
the  right  of  inheritance,  they  also  obtained  the  right  to 
control  their  own  fortunes;  they  accordingly  held  a  far 
more  favorable  position  than  their  Greek  sisters.  This 
freer  position  gradually  won  by  them,  gave  the  elder 
Cato — born  234  B.  C. — cause  for  the  following  complaint: 
"If  the  head  of  each  family,  following  the  example  of  his 
ancestors,  would  seek  to  maintain  his  wife  in  proper 
submissiveness,  the  entire  sex  would  not  give  so  much 
trouble  publicly."  When  a  few  tribunes  in  the  year  195 
B.  C.,  moved  to  repeal  a  law  enacted  previously,  for  the 
purpose  of  restricting  the  luxury  of  women  in  dress  and 
personal  adornment,  he  stormed:  "If  each  of  us  had 
maintained  his  manly  authority  with  his  own  wife,  we 
would  have  less  bother  here  with  all  the  women.  Our 
power  that  has  been  shattered  in  the  home,  now  is  being 
broken  and  trampeled  upon  in  the  forum  too  by  the 
unruliness  of  women,  and  because  we  are  incapable  of 
resisting  them  individually,  we  fear  them  all  together. 
Our  ancestors  decided  that  women  should  not  even 
attend  to  their  private  affairs  without  the  control  of  a 


54     Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate 

guardian,  that  they  should  be  subject  to  their  fathers, 
brothers,  husbands.  But  we  submit  to  it  that  they  take 
possession  of  the  republic  and  interfere  with  the  popular 
assembly.  If  you  give  free  reign  to  the  imperious  natures 
of  these  unruly  creatures,  do  not  imagine  that  they  will 
recognize  any  limits  of  their  tyranny.  The  truth  is  that 
they  desire  freedom,  nay,  dissoluteness,  in  all  things,  and 
when  they  have  begun  to  be  our  equals,  they  will  soon 
be  our  superiors." 

At  the  time  Cato  delivered  this  speech  the  father  was 
guardian  to  his  daughter  during  his  lifetime.,  even  when 
she  was  married,  unless  he  appointed  another  guardian. 
When  the  father  died  the  nearest  male  relative  assumed 
the  guardianship.  The  guardian  had  the  right  to  transfer 
this  guardianship  to  whomever  and  whenever  he  pleased. 
Originally  then  the  Roman  woman  had  no  will  of  her 
own  before  the  law. 

The  forms  of  marriage  ceremonies  were  varied  and 
underwent  many  changes  in  the  course  of  the  centuries. 
The  most  ceremonious  marriage  ceremony  was  performed 
by  the  high  priest  in  the  presence  of  at  least  ten  wit- 
nesses, whereupon  the  bridal  pair  ate  a  cake  made  of 
flour,  salt  and  water  as  a  symbol  of  their  union.  This 
ceremony  has  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  eating  of  the 
sacramental  wafer  at  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per. A  second  form  of  marriage  was  merely  by  taking 
possession.  If  a  woman  had  lived  with  her  chosen  hus- 
band under  the  same  roof  for  one  year,  with  the  consent 
of  her  father  or  guardian,  the  marriage  was  legalized. 
A  third  form  was  a  sort  of  mutual  purchase.  The  man 
and  woman  exchanged  some  coins  and  promised  to  be 
husband  and  wife.  At  the  time  of  Cicero*  free  divorce 
to  both  partners  in  the  marriage  contract  was  already 
established,  and  it  was  even  denied  that  an  announce- 
ment of  the  divorce  was  necessary.  But  the  "lex  Julia 
de  adultriis"  prescribed  that  a  divorce  must  be  solemnly 
announced.  This  law  was  caused  by  the  frequent  occur- 
rence that  women,  having  committed  adultery  and  then 
having  been  called  to  account,  claimed  to  have  divorced 

*Born  106  B.  C. 


Woman  in  the  Past  55 

their  husbands.  Justinian  (The  Christian)*  prohibited 
divorce,  except  when  both  parties  wished  to  enter  a 
monastery.  But  his  successor,  Justinian  II.,  found  it 
necessary  to  introduce  it  again. 

As  Rome  grew  in  wealth  and  power,  vice  and  licenti- 
ousness of  the  worst  kind  replaced  the  moral  austerity 
of  its  early  days.  Rome  became  the  center  from  which 
lewdness,  debauchery  and  sensual  finesse  spread  over 
the  entire  civilized  world  of  that  period.  Especially  dur- 
ing the  time  of  the  emperors,  and  frequently  encouraged 
by  the  emperors  themselves,  the  debauchery  assumed 
forms  that  could  only  have  been  inspired  by  insanity. 
Men  and  women  vied  with  each  other  in  immorality. 
The  number  of  public  brothels  increased  rapidly,  and 
besides  the  "Greek  love"  (sodomy)  was  practised  more 
and  more  by  the  men.  At  one  time  the  number  of  male 
prostitutes  in  Rome  was  greater  than  the  number  of 
female  prostitutes. 

The  courtesans  appeared  in  great  pomp,  surrounded 
by  their  admirers,  on  the  streets  and  the  promenade,  in 
the  circus  and  theater,  sometimes  reclining  on  couches 
carried  by  Negroes,  holding  a  mirror  in  their  hand, 
decked  with  jewels,  partly  nude,  fanned  by  slaves,  sur- 
rounded by  a  swarm  of  boys,  eunuchs  and  flute-players, 
with  grotesque  dwarfs  bringing  up  the  rear. 

These  debaucheries  assumed  such  dimensions  in  the 
Roman  empire,  that  they  threatened  its  very  existence. 
The  bad  example  set  by  men,  was  followed  by  women. 
There  were  women,  so  Seneca**  reports,  who  did  not 
count  years  by  the  consuls,  as  was  customary,  but  by 
the  number  of  their  husbands.  Adultery  was  general, 
and  in  order  to  escape  the  severe  penalties  attached  to  it, 
women  had  themselves  registered  as  prostitutes.  Even 
some  of  the  most  aristocratic  ladies  of  Rome  were  among 
these. 

Besides  these  debaucheries,  civil  wars  and  the  system 
of  the  latifundia  caused  such  a  marked  decline  of  the 
marriage  and  birth-rate,  that  the  number  of  Roman  citi- 
zens and  patricians  was  greatly  diminished.  In  the  year 

*From  527  to  565  A.  D. 
**Seneca  lived  from  2  to  65  A.  D. 


56  Christianity 

16  B.  C.  Augustus  enacted  the  so-called  Julian  law;*  that 
placed  a  penalty  upon  the  unmarried  state  of  Roman 
citizens  and  patricians,  and  rewarded  them  for  having 
children.  Whoever  had  children  was  deemed  of  higher 
station  than  childless  or  unmarried  persons.  Unmarried 
persons  could  not  inherit  property  trom  anyone  except 
their  nearest  relatives.  People  who  had  no  children  could 
only  claim  half  of  an  inheritance,  the  other  half  was 
turned  over  to  the  state.  Women  who  had  been  con- 
victed of  adultery,  were  compelled  to  give  a  part  of  their 
dowery  to  their  deceived  husbands.  This  provision 
caused  some  men  to  marry  with  a  desire  for  adultery  on 
the  part  of  their  wives.  That  caused  Plutarch  to  remark: 
"Romans  do  not  marry  to  have  heirs,  but  to  become 
heirs."  Later  on  the  Julian  law  was  still  increased  in 
severity.  Tiberius  issued  an  edict  that  no  woman  whose 
grandfather,  father  or  husband  had  been  or  was  a  Roman 
knight,  might  prostitute  herself.  Married  women,  who 
had  their  names  entered  in  the  lists  of  prostitutes,  should 
be  banished  from  Italy.  For  the  men,  of  course,  no  such 
punishments  existed.  As  Juvenal  reports,  husband- 
murder  by  poison  was  a  frequent  occurrence  in  Rome  of 
his  day. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Christianity. 

While  in  the  Roman  empire  the  marriage  and  birth- 
rate were  permitted  to  decline  more  and  more,  the  Jews 
maintained  far  different  customs.  The  Jewess  was  not 
entitled  to  choose  her  own  husband ;  he  was  chosen  for 
her  by  her  father.  But  she  regarded  marriage  as  a  duty 
which  she  faithfully  performed.  The  Talmud  advises: 
"When  thy  daughter  has  attained  maturity,  set  one  of 
thy  slaves  free  and  betroth  her  to  him."  The  Jews  like- 
wise faithfully  obeyed  the  commandment  of  their  God: 
"Be  fruitful  and  multiply."  Accordingly  the  Jews  have 

*Augustus,  the  adopted  son  of  Caesar,  was  by  adoption  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Gens  Julia,  from  which  the  Julian  law  derived  its  name. 


Woman  in  the  Past  57 

steadily  increased  in  spite  of  persecution  and  oppression; 
they  are  staunch  opponents  of  Malthusianism.  Tacitus 
said  of  them :  "They  firmly  hold  together  and  readily 
assist  one  another,  but  are  hostile  and  full  of  hatred 
against  all  others.  They  never  eat  or  sleep  with  enemies, 
and  though  very  much  inclined  to  sensual  passion,  they 
refrain  from  pairing  with  foreign  women.  Yet  they  are 
eager  to  increase  their  tribe.  To  destroy  their  offspring 
is  a  sin  to  them;  and  the  souls  of  those  who  have  been 
killed  in  battle  or  executed,  they  consider  immortal. 
Therefore  they  combine  love  for  propagation  with  a  con- 
tempt for  death."  But  Tacitus  hated  and  despised  the 
Jews  because  they,  regardless  of  their  paternal  creed, 
eagerly  accumulated  wealth.  He  calls  them  "the  meanest 
people,  "an  ugly  nation." 

Under  Roman  rule,  the  Jews  became  more  and  more 
closely  linked  with  one  another,  and  during  the  long 
time  of  suffering  they  were  doomed  to  endure  from  this 
time  on  through  the  entire  middle  ages,  that  intimate 
family  life  developed  among  them,  which  still  is  regarded 
as  a  sort  of  model  by  bourgeois  society.  In  Roman 
society  meanwhile,  that  process  of  decay  and  dissolution 
took  place  that  brought  the  empire  to  an  end.  The  de- 
bauchery bordering  on  madness  was  opposed  by  the ' 
opposite  extreme,  rigorous  self-denial.  Asceticism  now 
assumed  religious  forms,  as  the  debaucheries  had  pre- 
viously done.  Eccentric  fanaticism  made  propaganda 
for  it.  The  boundless  luxury  and  extravagance  of  the 
ruling  classes  was  in  striking  contrast  with  the  want  and 
misery  of  the  millions  and  millions  of  people  who  were 
brought  to  Italy  into  servitude  by  the  conquering 
Romans  from  all  the  countries  of  the  world  known  at 
that  time.  Among  these  there  also  were  ever  so  many 
women,  torn  from  their  homes,  their  parents,  their  hus- 
bands and  children,  who  were  most  deeply  afflicted  by 
their  misfortune  and  longed  for  liberation.  Many  Roman 
women  who  were  thoroughly  disgusted  by  what  was 
going  on  about  them,  were  in  a  similar  mental  state.  Any 
change  in  their  position  seemed  desirable.  A  profound 
longing  for  change,  for  redemption,  manifested  itself  in 
wide  circles,  and  the  Redeemer  seemed  to  approach.  The 


58  Christianity 

conquest  of  the  Jewish  realm  and  Jerusalem  by  the 
Romans,  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  national  indepen- 
dence, and  brought  forth  idealists  among  the  ascetics  of 
that  country  who  predicted  the  coming  of  a  new  kingdom 
with  freedom  and  happiness  for  all. 

Christ  came  and  Christianity  developed.  It  personi- 
fied opposition  against  the  beastly  materialism  that  pre- 
vailed among  the  rich  and  mighty  ones  in  the  Roman 
empire;  it  represented  rebellion  against  the  oppression 
and  disdain  of  the  masses.  But  since  it  sprang  from 
Judaism  that  knew  woman  only  as  an  oppressed  being, 
and  since  it  was  biased  by  the  biblical  conception  that 
she  is  the  source  of  all  evil,  it  preached  the  disdain  of 
woman ;  it  preached  abstinence  and  destruction  of  the 
flesh,  that  was  sinning  so  much  at  the  time,  and  with 
ambiguous  expressions  pointed  to  a  coming  kingdom — 
conceived  by  some  as  a  celestial,  by  others  as  an  earthly 
kingdom — that  would  bring  universal  peace  and  justice. 
In  the  mire  of  the  Roman  realm,  the  seeds  of  these  doc- 
trines were  planted  in  fertile  soil.  Woman,  hoping  for 
liberation  and  redemption  from  her  position  like  all  the 
other  unfortunates,  gladly  and  eagerly  embraced  the  new 
faith.  Until  this  day  no  great  and  important  movement 
has  taken  place  in  all  the  world  in  which  women  did  not 
figure  as  heroines  and  martyrs.  They  who  praise  Chris- 
tianity as  a  great  achievement  of  civilization,  should  not 
forget  that  to  woman  it  owed  many  of  its  victories.  Her 
eagerness  to  make  converts  played  an  important  part 
both  in  the  Roman  empire  and  among  the  barbarian 
peoples  of  the  middle  ages.  Through  her  efforts  those  in 
power  often  were  converted.  Thus,  for  instance,  it  was 
Chlotilde  who  induced  Chlodwig,  King  of  the  Franks,  to 
embrace  Christianity.  It  was  Bertha,  Queen  of  Kent, 
and  Gisela,  Queen  of  Hungary,  who  introduced  Chris- 
tianity in  their  countries.  The  conversion  of  many  promi- 
nent men  was  due  to  the  influence  of  women.  But  Chris- 
tianity rewarded  woman  poorly.  Its  doctrines  contain 
the  same  disdain  of  woman  that  is  met  with  in  all  the 
religions  of  the  Orient.  It  commands  her  to  be  an  obe- 
dient servant  to  man,  and  even  to-day  women  must 
promise  obedience  to  their  husbands  before  the  marriage 


Woman  in  the  Past  59 

altar.    Let  us  hear  how  the  Bible  and  Christianity  speak 
of  woman  and  marriage. 

The  ten  commandments  of  the  old  testament  are 
addressed  exclusively  to  the  man.  In  the  ninth  com- 
mandment the  woman  is  mentioned  together  with  the 
domestic  servants  and  domestic  animals.  The  man  is 
warned  not  to  covet  his  neighbor's  wife,  nor  his  man- 
servant, nor  his  maid-servant,  nor  his  ox,  nor  his  ass,  nor 
anything  that  is  his  neighbors.  Woman  then  is  an  object, 
a  piece  of  property,  that  man  should  not  desire  if  in  some- 
one else's  possession.  Jesus,  who  belonged  to  a  sect  that 
maintained  rigorous  asceticism  and  practised  voluntary 
emasculation,  when  asked  by  his  disciples  whether  it  were 
well  to  marry,  replied :  All  men  cannot  receive  this  say- 
ing save  they  to  whom  it  is  given.  For  there  are  some 
eunuchs,  which  were  so  born  from  their  mother's  womb ; 
and  there  are  some  eunuchs  which  were  made  eunuchs  of 
men ;  and  there  be  eunuchs  which  have  made  themselves 
eunuchs  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven's  sake. 

According  to  this,  then,  emasculation  is  agreeable  to 
God,  and  renunciation  of  love  and  marriage  is  a  worthy 
deed.  St.  Paul,  who  may  be  called  the  founder  of  Chris- 
tianity even  more  so  than  Jesus  himself,  St.  Paul,  who 
removed  this  creed  from  the  narrow  Jewish  sectarianism 
and  gave  it  its  international  character,  writes  to  the 
Corynthians:  Now  concerning  the  things  whereof  ye 
wrote  unto  me:  it  is  good  for  a  man  not  to  touch  a 
woman.  Nevertheless,  to  avoid  fornication,  let  every 
man  have  his  own  wife  and  let  every  woman  have  her 
own  husband. 

"Matrimony  is  a  degraded  station ;  to  marry  is  good, 
not  to  marry  is  better."  "Walk  in  the  spirit  and  resist 
the  temptations  of  the  flesh."  "The  flesh  conspires 
against  the  spirit  and  the  spirit  conspires  against  the 
"flesh."  They,  whom  Christ  has  won,  have  crucified 
their  flesh  with  all  its  passions  and  desires. 

He  was  true  to  his  own  views  and  refrained  from  mar- 
riage. This  hatred  of  flesh  is  the  hatred  of  woman,  but 
also  the  fear  of  woman,  who  is  represented  as  man's 
seducer.  In  this  spirit  the  apostles  and  fathers  of  the 
church  preached;  in  this  same  spirit  the  church  used  its 


60  Christianity 

influence  during  the  entire  middle  ages,  by  establishing 
monasteries  and  introducing  celibacy  of  priests,  and  it  is 
still  using  its  influence  in  the  same  direction. 

According  to  Christianity  woman  is  impure.  She  is 
the  seducer  who  trought  sin  into  the  world  and  wrought 
man's  destruction.  Therefore  the  apostles  and  fathers  of 
the  church  regarded  marriage  as  a  necessary  evil,  as 
prostitution  is  regarded  at  present.  Tertullian  exclaims : 
"Woman,  you  ought  to  go  about  clad  in  mourning  and 
rags,  your  eyes  filled  with  tears  of  remorse,  to  make  us 
forget  that  you  have  been  mankind's  destruction. 
Woman,  you  are  the  gate  to  hell !"  And :  "Celibacy  must 
be  chose,  even  though  the  human  race  should  perish." 
Hieronymus  says:  "Matrimony  is  always  a  vice,  all  that 
can  be  done  is  to  excuse  it  and  to  sanctify  it ;  therefore  it 
was  made  a  religious  sacrament.  Orig/n4|  declares: 
"Matrimony  is  impure  and  unholy;  a  means  of  sensual 
passion."  To  escape  the  temptation  he  emasculated  him- 
self. Augustin  teaches:  "The  married  people  will  shine 
in  heaven  like  radiant  stars,  while  their  parents  (their 
procreators)  will  be  like  dark  stars."  Eusebius  and 
Hieronymus  are  agreed  that  the  teaching  of  the  Bible : 
"Be  fruitful  and  multiply,"  is  no  longer  suited  to  the 
times,  and  does  not  concern  Christians.  Hundreds  of 
similar  sayings  by  the  most  influential  teachers  of  the 
church  might  be  quoted,  to  prove  that  they  all  taught  in 
the  same  spirit.  By  their  continuous  teaching  and 
preaching  they  have  disseminated  those  unnatural  views 
about  everything  pertaining  to  sex  and  the  sex  relation, 
which  after  all  is  a  law  of  nature,  and  the  fulfillment  of 
.  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  duties  in  the  plan  of 
life.  Modern  society  is  still  suffering  from  the  effects  of 
these  doctrines,  and  is  but  slowly  recovering  from  them. 

St.  Peter  exclaims  with  energy:  "Wives,  obey  your 
husbands!"  St.  Paul  writes  to  the  Ephesians:  "The 
husband  is  the  head  of  the  wife,  as  Christ  also  is  the  head 
of  the  church/'  And  to  the  Corinthians:  "The  man  is 
the  image  and  glory  of  God;  but  woman  is  the  glory  of 
the  man." 

According  to  this  any  fool  of  a  man  may  deem  him- 
self better  than  the  most  excellent  woman,  and  as  a  mat- 


Woman  in  the  Past  61 

ter  of  fact  it  has  been  so  in  practice  until  this  day.  Against 
the  higher  education  of  women  St.  Paul  also  raises  his 
voice.  In  the  first  Epistle  to  Timothy  2,  n,  etc.,  he  says : 
"Let  a  woman  learn  in  quietness  with  all  subjection. 
But  I  permit  not  a  woman  to  teach,  nor  to  have  dominion 
over  a  man,  but  to  be  in  quietness" ;  and  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Corinthians.  14,  34  and  35:  "Let  the  women  keep 
silence  in  the  churches ;  for  it  is  not  permitted  unto  them 
to  speak.  But  let  them  be  in  subjection  as  also  saith  the 
law.  And  if  they  would  learn  anything  let  them  ask 
their  own  husbands  at  home ;  for  it  is  shameful  for  a 
woman  to  speak  in  the  church."  St.  Thomas  of  Aquino 
(1227  to  1274)  says:  "Woman  is  a  rapidly  growing  weed, 
an  imperfect  being.  Her  body  attains  maturity  more 
rapidly  only  because  it  is  of  less  value,  and  nature  is 
engaged  less  in  her  making.  Women  are  born  to  be 
eternally  maintained  under  the  yoke  of  their  lords  and 
masters,  endowed  by  nature  with  superiority  in  every 
respect,  and  therefore  destined  to  rule." 

Such  doctrines  are  not  characteristic  of  Christianity 
only.  As  Christianity  is  a  mixture  of  Judaism  and  Greek 
philosophy,  and  as  both  are  rooted  in  the  more  ancient 
civilizations  of  India,  Babylon  and  Egypt,  the  inferior 
position  alloted  to  woman  by  Christianity  was  common 
to  all  the  civilized  nations  of  antiquity  after  the  passing 
of  the  matriarchate.  In  the  Indian  book  of  laws  of  Manu 
we  find  the  following:  "The  cause  of  dishonor  is  woman; 
the  cause  of  hostility  is  woman;  the  cause  of  worldly 
'things  is  woman ;  therefore  woman  should  be  shunned." 
Beside  the  degradation  of  woman,  the  fear  of  woman  is 
repeatedly  naively  expressed.  Thus  it  is  further  stated 
in  Manu :  "Women  are  ever  inclined  by  nature  to  seduce 
men ;  therefore  a  man  should  never,  even  in  the  company 
of  his  closest  female  relative,  sit  in  a  lonely  spot."  The 
Indian  conception,  the  old  testament,  and  the  Christian 
conception,  all  unite  in  declaring  woman  the  seducer. 
Every  condition  of  oppression  entails  the  degradation 
of  the  oppressed.  The  oppression  of  woman  has  been 
maintained  until  this  day;  but  among  the  Oriental  peo- 
ples, whose  social  development  has  been  retarded,  it  has 
been  maintained  more  rigorously  than  among  the  Chris- 


62  Christianity 

tian  nations.  Yet  the  factor  that  made  for  improvement 
in  the  position  of  women  among  Christian  nations  was 
not  Christianity  itself,  but  the  civilization  of  the  Western 
countries  attained  in  the  struggles  against  the  Christian 
conception. 

Christianity  is  not  the  cause  that  woman's  position  is 
superior  to-day  to  what  it  had  been  at  the  time  of  the 
origin  of  Christianity.  Only  reluctantly  has  it  been  com- 
pelled to  abandon  its  true  attitude  toward  woman.  They 
who  are  enthusiastic  over  the  "redeeming  mission  of 
Christianity,"  of  course,  hold  a  different  view.  They 
claim  that  Christianity  has  liberated  woman  from  her 
former  degraded  position,  and  they  base  this  claim 
especially  upon  the  cult  of  the  Holy  Virgin,  which  they 
consider  a  token  of  respect  for  woman.  The  Catholic 
Church  which  maintains  this  cult,  might  hardly  share  this 
opinion.  The  above-quoted  sayings  of  the  saints  and  the 
fathers  of  the  church  which  could  easily  be  multiplied,  all 
express  hostility  to  woman  and  marriage.  The  Council 
i  at  Macon  during  the  sixth  century,  which  indulged  in 
serious  discussion  as  to  whether  woman  had  a  soul,  and 
finally  decided  in  her  favor  by  a  majority  of  one,  also 
disproves  the  claim  that  Christianity  was  favorable  to 
women.  The  introduction  of  celibacy  of  priests  by 
Gregory  VII,*  the  purpose  of  which  was  to  create  a 
power  by  having  an  unmarried  priesthood  that  would  not 
be  withdrawn  from  the  service  of  the  church  by  any  family 
interests,  was  made  possible  only  by  that  fundamental 
view  of  the  church,  that  all  desires  of  the  flesh  are  sinful. 
Many  reformers,  especially  Calvin  and  the  Scotch  minis- 
ters, have  raved  so  vehemently  against  the  "lust  of  the 
flesh,"  that  they  left  no  doubt  in  regard  to  the  hostile 
attitude  of  Christianity  toward  women,**  By  introduc- 


*Among  others  the  parish  priests  of  the  Diocese  of  Mayence  thus 
protested  against  this  ordinance:  "You  bishops  and  abbots  possess 
great  riches,  elegant  hunting  outfits  and  en  joy 'royal  banquets;  we 
poor,  simple  priests  have  but  a  wife  for  our  comfort.  Abstinence 
may  be  a  virtue,  but  it  is  forsooth  severe  and  hard." — Yoes  Guyot, 
"Les  Theories  sociales  du  Christianisme." 

**A  great  many  instances  in  evidence  of  this  are  furnished  by 
Buckle  in  his  "History  of  Civilization  in  England." 


:'*'•        ;   :,  -   :   .,  -. 


Woman  in  the  Past  63 

ing  the  cult  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  Catholic  Church, 
with  wise  calculation,  merely  put  this  cult  in  jMace  of  the 
cult  of  the  ancient  goddesses,  that  existed  amcig  all  the 
peoples  who  were  converted  to  Christianity  at  that  time. 
Mary  replaced  Cybel,  Mylitta,  Aphrodite  and  Venus 
among  the  Southern  nations,  and  Freia,  Frigga  and 
others  among  the  German  tribes.  She  was  only  endowed 
with  a  Christian,  spiritual  idealism. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
Woman  in  the  Mediaeval  Age. 

i. — The  Position  of  Women  among  the  Germans. 

The  robust,  physically  healthy,  coarse  but  unsophisti- 
cated peoples  that  during  the  first  centuries  after  Christ 
came  from  the  North  and  East,  flooding  like  mighty 
ocean  waves  the  enervated  Roman  empire  in  which 
Christianity  had  gradually  come  into  power,  vehemently 
resisted  the  ascetic  teachings  of  the  Christian  preachers, 
who  were  obliged  to  make  allowances  for  these  healthy 
natures.  The  Romans  were  surprised  to  find  that  -the 
customs  of  these  peoples  differed  considerably  from  their 
own.  Tacitus  takes  note  of  this  fact  in  regard  to  the 
Germans,  of  whom  he  thus  expresses  his  approval : 
"Their  marriage  laws  are  severe  and  none  of  their  cus- 
toms are  more  laudable  than  this  one,  for  they  are  prac- 
tically the  only  barbarians  who  content  themselves  with 
one  wife.  Among  this  numerous  people  one  rarely  hears 
of  adultery,  and  when  it  does  occur,  it  is  promptly  pun- 
ished, the  men  themselves  being  permitted  to  inflict  the 
punishment.  Naked,  her  hair  clipped,  thus  the  man 
drives  the  adulteress  out  of  the  village  before  the  eyes 
of  her  relatives,  for  a  sin  against  virtue  is  not  condoned. 
There  nobody  laughs  over  vice  and  to  seduce  and  being 
seduced  are  not  considered  a  sign  of  good  breeding.  The 
youths  marry  late;  therefore  they  maintain  their 
strength.  The  maidens,  too,  are  not  married  off  hastily, 
and  they  are  of  the  same  stature  as  the  men,  and 


64  Woman  in  the  Mediaeval  Age 

present  th(-  same  healthful  glow  of  youth.  Of  equal 
age,  equahy  strong,  they  wed,  and  the  strength  of  the 
parents  ip.  transmitted  to  the  children." 

Evidently  Tacitus  depicted  the  matrimonial  relations 
of  the  ancient  Germans  in  a  somewhat  too  rosy  hue,  to 
set  them  before  the  Romans  as  an  example.  They  indeed 
severely  punished  the  woman  who  committed  adultery, 
but  the  punishment  was  not  inflicted  upon  the  man  who 
committed  adultery.  At  the  time  of  Tacitus,  the  gens 
still  nourished  among  +he  Germans.  Tacitus,  being  ac- 
customed to  the  more  advanced  Roman  conditions  that 
made  the  old  gentile  organization  and  its  foundations 
seem  strange  and  incomprehensible  to  him,  wonderingly 
relates  that  among  the  Germans  a  mother's  brother 
regards  his  nephew  as  a  son,  and  that  some  considered 
the  bond  of  blood  relation  between  an  uncle  on  the 
mother's  side  and  his  nephew  as  being  even  more  sacred 
than  the  bond  between  father  and  son.  For  this  reason, 
so  he  furthermore  relates,  when  hostages  were  asked  for, 
it  was  considered  a  stronger  security  when  a  man  gave 
his  sister's  son  instead  of  his  own.  Upon  this  subject 
Engels  remarks :  "When  the  member  of  a  gens  gave  his 
own  son  as  a  hostage  and  he  was  sacrificed  by  a  breach 
of  the  agreement,  it  was  the  father's  own  concern.  But 
if  his  sister's  son  had  been  sacrificed  a  sacred  gentile 
right  had  been  violated.  The  nearest  gentile  relation  by 
duty  bound  to  protect  the  boy  or  youth,  had  caused  his 
death.  He  should  either  not  have  pledged  him,  or  should 
have  kept  his  agreement."*  Engels  shows  that  in  other 
respects  among  the  Germans  at  the  time  of  Tacitus,  the 
matriarchate  had  already  been  replaced  by  the  patri- 
archate. The  children  inherited  from  their  father.  In 
the  absence  of  children,  brothers  and  uncles  on  both  the 
father's  and  mother's  side  were  the  lawful  heirs.  That 
the  mother's  brother  was  admitted  to  a  share  in  the  in- 
heritance, although  inheritance  was  determined  by  des- 
cent on  the  father's  side,  can  be  explained  by  the  fact 
that  the  old  law  had  but  recently  disappeared.  Memories 
of  the  old  law  also  caused  that  profound  respect  of  the 


*  Engels :   "Origin  of  the  Family." 


Woman  in  the  Past  65 

German  for  the  female  sex,  which  so  greatly  surprised 
Tacitus.  He  also  observed  that  the  courage  of  the  men 
was  kindled  to  the  utmost  by  the  women.  The  thought 
of  seeing  their  women  led  into  captivity  and  servitude 
was  most  terrible  to  the  ancient  Germans  and  impelled 
them  to  the  utmost  resistance.  But  the  women  also  were 
animated  by  a  spirit  that  greatly  impressed  the  Romans. 
When  Marius  would  not  permit  the  captured  Teuton 
women  to  become  priestesses  of  Vesta  (the  goddess  of 
virgin  chastity)  they  committed  suicide. 

At  the  time  of  Tacitus  the  Germans  possessed  fixed 
abodes.  There  was  an  annual  division  of  the  soil,  which 
was  determined  by  lot,  and  the  wood,  the  streams  and 
the  pasture-ground  were  considered  common  property. 
Their  mode  of  life  was  extremely  simple;  theii  wealth 
consisted  mainly  of  cattle;  coarse  woolen  cloaks  or  the 
hides  of  animals  constituted  their  clothing.  Women  and 
some  men  of  rank  wore  linen  under-garments.  Metal 
tools  and  weapons  were  manufactured  only  by  those 
tribes  who  lived  in  too  remote  parts  for  the  importation 
of  Roman  products  of  industry.  In  minor  matters  deci- 
sions were  rendered  by  the  council  of  chiefs ;  in  more 
important  matters  by  the  popular  assembly.  Originally 
the  chiefs  were  elected,  though  usually  from  one  particu- 
lar family.  But  the  transition  to  the  patriarchal  system 
favored  the  heredity  of  the  position,  and  finally  led 
to  the  formation  of  a  hereditary  nobility  that  later  on 
developed  into  kingship.  As  in  Greece  and  Rome,  the 
German  gens  perished  by  the  rise  of  private  property, 
the  development  of  industry  and  commerce,  and  inter- 
marriage with  members  of  foreign  tribes  and  nations. 
The  gens  was  replaced  by  the  mark  community,  a  demo- 
cratic organization  of  free  peasants  that  constituted  a 
firm  bulwark  against  the  encroachments  of  church  and 
nobility  for  many  centuries,  and  did  not  quite  disappear 
even  then  when  the  feudal  state  had  come  into  power 
and  the  free  peasants  had  been  forced  into  a  condition 
of  servitude.  The  mark  community  was  represented  by 
the  heads  of  the  families.  Wives,  daughters  and  daugh- 
ters-in-law were  excluded  from  the  council.  The  times  had 
passed  in  which  women  conducted  the  affairs  of  the 


66  Woman  in  the  Mediaeval  Age 

tribe — an  incident  which  greatly  amazed  Tacitus,  and 
which  he  describes  with  remarks  of  scorn.  In  the  fifth 
century  the  Salic  law  repealed  the  right  of  inheritance 
of  women  to  patrimonial  estates. 

Every  male  member  of  the  mark  community  was 
entitled,  upon  marriage,  to  share  in  the  common  soil. 
Usually  grandparents,  parents  and  children  lived  under 
one  roof  in  a  household  community,  and  so  it  frequently 
occurred  that  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  an  additional 
share,  a  son  who  had  not  yet  attained  the  marriageable 
age  was  joined  in  wedlock  with  some  maiden  of  mar- 
riageable age  by  proxy,  the  father  actinp-  as  husband  in 
place  of  the  son.*  Newly  married  couples  were  given  a 
cartload  of  beachwood  and  wood  to  build  a  log  cabin. 
Upon  the  birth  of  a  daughter,  parents  also  received  one 
cartload  of  wood ;  upon  the  birth  of  a  son  they  received 
two.  The  female  sex  accordingly  was  considered  worth 
only  half  as  much  as  the  male  sex. 

The  marriage  ceremony  was  simple.  Religious  rites 
were  unknown.  A  mutual  agreement  was  sufficient,  and 
as  soon  as  the  couple  had  entered  the  nuptial  bed,  tht 
marriage  was  contracted.  Only  in  the  ninth  century  that 
custom  arose  according  to  which  a  religious  ceremony 
was  necessary  to  legalize  a  marriage,  and  as  late  as  the 
sixteenth  century,  marriage  was  made  a  sacrament  of  the 
Catholic  Church  by  a  decision  of  the  council  of  Trent. 

2. — Feudalism  and  the  Right  of  the  First  Night. 

With  the  rise  of  the  feudal  state  the  position  of  a 
great  many  commoners  became  considerably  worse.  The 
victorious  leaders  of  the  army  abused  their  power  by 
taking  possession  of  large  tracts  of  land.  They  con- 
sidered themselves  entitled  to  the  common  property,  and 
did  not  hesitate  to  distribute  it  among  their  followers, 
slaves,  serfs  or  freed  men,  either  for  temporary  use  or 
with  the  right  of  inheritance.  Thereby  they  created  for 
themselves  a  court  and  military  nobility,  devoted  to 
them  in  all  things.  The  establishment  of  a  large  realm 
of  the  Franks  destroyed  the  last  traces  of  gentile  organi- 


*The  same  custom  was  met  with  in  Russia  during  the  rule  of  Mir. 


Woman  in  the  Past  67 

zation.  The  council  of  the  chiefs  was  replaced  by  the 
leaders  of  the  army  and  the  newly  created  nobility. 

Gradually  the  great  mass  of  the  commoners  were 
driven  into  a  condition  of  exhaustion  and  pauperism,  as 
a  result  of  the  continuous  wars  of  conquest  and  the  dis- 
putes of  their  rulers,  for  which  they  had  to  bear  the 
heaviest  burdens.  They  could  no  longer  serve  in  the 
militia.  In  their  place  the  lords  and  noblemen  recruited 
vassals,  and  the  peasants  placed  themselves  and  their 
possessions  under  the  protection  of  a  worldly  or  spiritual 
lord — for  the  church  had  succeeded  in  becoming:  a  great 
power  within  a  few  centuries — in  return  for  which  they 
paid  rent  and  taxes.  Thus  the  free  farms  were  trans- 
formed into  leased  property,  and  as  time  went  by  new- 
duties  were  constantly  imposed.  Having  once  come  into 
this  dependent  position,  it  was  not  long  before  the  peas- 
ants were  deprived  of  their  personal  liberty  as  well. 
Bondage  and  serfdom  expanded  more  and  more.  The 
feudal  lord  held  almost  unrestricted  sway  over  his  serfs. 
His  was  the  right  to  compel  any  man  who  had  attained 
the  eighteenth  and  any  girl  who  had  attained  the  four- 
teenth year,  to  become  married.  He  could  prescribe  to 
both  men  and  women  whom  they  were  to  marry,  even  in 
the  case  of  widows  and  widowers.  As  lord  of  his  sub- 
ject?, he  considered  himself  entitled  to  sexual  intercourse 
with  his  female  serfs,  and  his  power  was  expressed  in 
the  "jus  primae  noctis"  (the  right  of  the  first  night). 
This  right  might  also  be  practiced  by  his  representative 
(major  domo)  unless  the  right  were  waived  upon  pay- 
ment of  a  tax.  The  terms  "bed-tribute,"  "virgin's 
tribute,"  etc.,  betray  the  nature  of  these  taxes. 

It  has  frequently  been  denied  that  this  right  of  the 
first  night  existed.  The  knowledge  of  its  existence  is 
uncomfortable  to  some  people,  because  it  was  still  prac- 
ticed at  a  time  that  they  like  to  represent  as  a  model  for 
virtuousness  and  piety.  We  have  already  shown  that 
this  right  of  the  first  night  was  a  custom  which  had  its 
origin  in  the  time  of  the  matriarchate.  When  the  old 
gentile  organization  disappeared,  the  custom  of  sur- 
rendering the  bride  in  the  bridal  night  to  the  members 
of  her  kinship  was  still  maintained.  But  in  the  course 


68  Woman  in  the  Mediaeval  Age 

of  time  the  right  was  restricted  and  finally  practiced  only 
by  the  chief  or  priest.  It  was  transferred  upon  the  feudal 
lord  as  a  result  of  his  power  over  the  people  who  lived 
upon  the  land  owned  by  him,  and  he  might  practice  this 
right  if  he  so  chose,  or  waive  it  in  return  for  a  payment 
in  kind  or  in  money.  How  real  was  this  right  of  the  first 
night  may  be  seen  by  the  following  passage  from  a  tale 
by  Jacob  Grimm:  "The  groom  shall  invite  the  manager 
of  the  estate  to  the  wedding  and  he  shall  also  invite  the 
manager's  wife.  The  manager  shall  bring^a  cartload  of 
wood  to  the  wedding,  and  his  wife  shall  bring  a  quarter 
of  a  roasted  pig.  When  the  wedding  is  over,  the  groom 
shall  let  the  manager  lie  with  his  wife  for  the  first  night, 
or  he  shall  redeem  her  with  five  shillings  and  six  pence.'' 

Sugenheim*  holds  the  opinion  that  the  right  of  the 
first  night  was  given  to  the  feudal  lord  because  his  serfs, 
in  order  to  marry,  needed  his  consent.  In  Beam  this 
practice  led  to  the  custom  that  all  first-born  children  of 
marriages  in  which  the  "jus  primae  noctis"  had  been 
practiced,  were  regarded  as  of  free  estate.  Later  on  this 
right  was  generally  redeemable  by  the  payment  of  a  tax. 
According  to  Sugenheim,  the  bishops  of  Amiens  stub- 
bornly maintained  this  tax  until  the  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  In  Scotland  the  right  of  the  first  night 
was  declared  redeemable  by  payment  of  a  tax  by  King 
Malcolm  III  at  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century.  In  Ger- 
many it  existed  much  longer.  According  to  the  records  of 
the  Swabian  monastery  Adelberg  of  the  year  1496,  the 
serfs  living  in  the  community  of  Boertlingen,  could  re- 
deem the  right  if  the  groom  gave  a  bag  of  salt  and  the 
bride  gave  i  ft>  7  shillings  in  a  dish  "large  enough  that  she 
might  sit  in  it."  In  other  localities  the  brides  might 
redeem  it  by  giving  the  feudal  lord  so  much  butter  cr 
cheese  "as  was  the  size  of  their  seat."  Elsewhere  they 
had  to  give  a  dainty  leather  chair  "in  which  they  just 
fitted."  According  to  a  description  of  the  Bavarian  judge 
of  the  court  of  appeals,  Mr.  Welsh,  a  tax  for  redeeming 
the  jus  primae  noctis  still  existed  in  Bavaria  in  the  eigh- 


*History  of  the  abolition  of  serfdom  in  Europe  until  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century. 


Woman  in  the  Past  69 

teenth  century.  Engels  furthermore  reports  that  among 
the  Scots  and  Welsh  the  jus  primae  noctis  was  main- 
tained thruout  the  middle  age,  but  since  here  the  gentile 
organization  continued  to  exist,  it  was  not  the  feudal  lord 
or  his  representative  who  practiced  this  right,  but  the 
chieftain  of  the  clan,  and  by  him  it  was  practiced  as  rep- 
resentative of  all  the  husbands  unless  a  tribute  was  paid. 

So  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  existence  of  the 
right  of  the  first  night,  not  only  in  medieval  days,  but 
even  down  to  modern  times,  and  that  it  held  a  place  in 
the  feudal  code  of  laws.  In  Poland  noblemen  arrogated 
the  right  to  deflour  any  maiden  who  chanced  to  please 
them,  and  if  someone  protested  against  this  usage,  they 
condemned  him  to  receive  one  hundred  blows  with  a 
cane.  Land-lords  and  their  employees  still  consider  the 
sacrifice  of  virginal  honor  to  their  lust  a  matter  of  course, 
not  only  in  Germany,  but  in  the  entire  southern  and  south 
eastern  portion  of  Europe,  as  is  asserted  by  those  who 
are  acquainted  with  the  land  and  the  people. 

During  feudalism  it  was  in  the  interest  of  the  feudal 
lord  that  his  serfs  should  become  married,  for  the  chil- 
dren became  his  serfs  also,  adding  to  the  number  of  his 
workers  and  increasing  his  income.  Therefore  both 
worldly  and  spiritual  masters  encouraged  marriage 
among  their  subjects.  The  question  assumed  a  different 
aspect  tho  as  far  as  the  church  was  concerned,  when  an 
unmarried  person  was  likely  to  will  his  property  to  the 
church.  But  this  only  applied  to  free  men  of  low  estate, 
whose  conditions  grew  steadily  worse  as  a  result  of  the 
conditions  described  herein,  and  who  gave  over  their  pos- 
sessions to  the  church  to  seek  protection  and  peace 
within  the  walls  of  the  monasteries.  Others  again  placed 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  church  by  paying 
a  tax  or  by  rendering  services.  But  in  this  way  the  fate 
they  had  sought  to  escape  frequently  befell  their  des- 
cendants; they  gradually  came  into  bondage  or  were 
made  novices  for  the  monasteries. 

3. — The  Rise  of  Cities.     Monastic  Affairs.     Prostitution. 

The  cities  which  had  begun  to  flourish  with  the  eleventh 
century,  favored  the  increase  of  population  in  their  own 


7o  .  .Woman  in  the  Mediaeval  Age 

interest  by  facilitating  residence  and  marriage.  They 
became  places  of  refuge  to  the  rural  population  seeking 
to  escape  unbearable  oppression,  and  to  fugitive  serfs. 
But  at  a  later  day  these  conditions  changed  again.  As 
soon  as  the  cities  had  obtained  power,  and  a  class  of 
mechanics  in  comfortable  circumstances  had  come  into 
existence,  a  feeling  of  hostility  manifested  itself  against 
new-comers  who  tried  to  settle  down  as  mechanics,  since 
they  were  regarded  as  undesirable  competitors.  Barriers 
were  erected  against  the  new-comers;  heavy  taxes  were 
levied  upon  them  if  they  would  obtain  the  right  of  resi- 
dence and  become  qualified  as  master-workmen.  Trades 
were  limited  to  a  certain  number  of  master-workmen  and 
their  journeymen,  thereby  forcing  thousands  into  a  con- 
dition of  servitude,  celibacy  and  vagabondage.  When 
during  the  sixteenth  century  the  cities  began  to  decline, 
— owing  to  conditions  that  will  be  discussed  later  on, — 
it  was  quite  in  keeping  with  the  narrow  views  of  the  time 
that  residence  and  the  right  to  independently  practice  a 
trade  were  made  still  more  difficult.  The  tyranny  of  the 
feudal  lords  constantly  increased,  until  many  of  their  sub- 
jects preferred  to  abandon  their  miserable  lives  for  the 
freer  life  of  beggar,  tramp  or  robber,  the  latter  being 
favored  by  the  large  forests  and  the  poor  condition  of  the 
highways,  or,  making  the  most  of  the  numerous  warfares 
of  the  time,  they  became  mercenary  soldiers,  selling 
their  services  wherever  the  pay  was  highest  and  the 
booty  most  promising.  Male  and  female  rabble  flooded 
the  country,  becoming  a  public  nuisance.  The  church 
helped  to  increase  the  general  depravity.  The  forced 
celibacy  of  the  clergy  alone  led  to  sexual  debauchery, 
and  this  was  still  heightened  by  the  constant  association 
with  Italy  and  Rome. 

Rome  was  not  only  the  capital  of  Christianity,  being 
the  residence  of  the  popes,  it  was  also,  true  to  its  tradi- 
tions under  the  heathen  emperors,  a  new  Babel,  the 
European  high-school  of  immorality,  and  the  papal  court 
was  its  most  distinguished  center.  The  Roman  empire 
at  its  dissolution  had  left  to  Christian  Europe  all  its  vices. 
These  were  cultivated  in  Rome  and  from  there  pene- 
trated into  Germany,  favored  by  association  of  the  clergy 


Woman  in  the  Past  71 

with  Rome.  The  numerous  clergy,  consisting  to  a  great 
extent  of  men  whose  sexual  desires  were  increased  to 
the  utmost  by  a  lazy  and  luxurious  life,  and  whom  en- 
forced celibacy  drove  to  illegitimate  or  unnatural  satis- 
faction of  their  desires,  transmitted  this  immorality  to  all 
strata  of  society.  The  clergy  became  a  pestilential  dan- 
ger to  the  virtue  of  women  in  cities  and  villages.  Mon- 
asteries and  nunneries, — and  there  were  countless  num- 
bers of  them, — frequently  differed  from  public  brothels 
only  inasmuch  as  life  within  them  was  still  more  licenti- 
ous and  dissolute.  Crimes,  especially  infanticide,  were 
frequently  committed  there  with  impunity,  because  only 
those  were  permitted  to  pass  judgment  who  were  more 
often  than  not  connected  with  the  crimes.  Sometimes 
peasants  tried  to  protect  their  wives  and  daughters  from 
being  seduced  by  clergymen,  by  refusing  to  accept  as 
pastor  any  one  who  would  not  consent  to  keeping  a  con- 
cubine. This  circumstance  led  a  bishop  of  Constance  to 
impose  a  concubine  tax  upon  the  clergy  of  his  diocese. 
Such  conditions  explain  the  historically  authenticated 
fact,  that  during  the  mediaeval  age  described  by  one  writer 
of  romance  as  a  pious  and  virtuous  age,  for  instance  in 
1414,  at  the  council  of  Constance,  no  less  than  1500  pros- 
titutes were  present. 

But  these  conditions  by  no  means  made  their  appear- 
ance only  at  the  decline  of  the  middle  age.  They  ap- 
peared at  an  early  date  and  gave  cause  for  constant  com- 
plaints and  ordinances.  Thus  Charlemagne  issued  an 
ordinance  in  the  year  802,  in  which  it  says :  "the  nun- 
neries shall  be  closely  guarded.  The  nuns  shall  not  roam 
about  but  shall  be  carefully  watched,  neither  shall  they 
live  in  discord  and  quarrels  with  one  another,  and  under 
no  circumstances  shall  they  disobey  their  mothers  supe- 
rior. Where  they  have  monastic  rules  they  shall  absol- 
utely abide  by  them.  They  shall  not  be  given  to  covet- 
ousness,  drunkenness  and  prostitution,  but  shall  lead  a 
just  and  temperate  life.  Neither  shall  any  man  enter 
their  convent  except  to  attend  mass,  and  then  he  shall 
immediately  depart  again."  Another  ordinance  of  the 
year  869  declared :  "if  priests  keep  several  wives  or  shed 
the  blood  of  Christians  or  heathens,  or  break  the  canon- 


72  Woman  in  the  Mediaeval  Age 

ical  law,  they  shall  be  divested  of  their  priesthood  be- 
cause they  are  worse  than  the  laity."  The  fact  that  in 
those  days  the  priests  were  forbidden  to  have  several 
wives,  shows  that  in  the  ninth  century  polygamy  was  not 
rare.  Indeed  there  were  no  laws  forbidding  it.  Even 
later,  at  the  time  of  the  minnesingers,  during  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries,  it  was  not  considered  objection- 
able to  have  several  wives.  In  a  poem  by  Albrecht  of 
Johansdorf  in  the  collection  "Love-songs'  Springtime," 
we  find  the  following  stanza:* 

Particularly  detrimental  to  the  moral  condition  of  the 
age  were  the  crusades,  that  kept  tens  of  thousands  of  men 
away  from  their  homes  for  years,  and  led  them  to  be- 
come acquainted  with  customs  in  the  Eastern  Roman 
empire  that  had  until  then  been  unknown  in  Western 
Europe.  The  position  of  women  became  especially  un- 
favorable, not  only  as  a  result  of  the  many  hindrances  to 
marriage  and  permanent  residence,  but  also  because  their 
numbers  by  far  exceeded  the  male  population.  The  chief 
cause  of  this  was  the  numerous  wars  and  the  fact  that 
commercial  traveling  in  those  days  was  a  dangerous 
undertaking.  Moreover  the  death  rate  among  men  was 
higher  than  among  women,  as  a  result  of  their  intem- 
perate living,  which  was  especially  manifested  during 
the  plague  that  frequently  ravaged  the  population  in  the 
middle  age.  Thus  there  were  32  plague  years  in  the 
period  from  1326  to  1400;  41  from  1400  to  1500,  and  30 
from  1500  to  1600.** 

Hosts  of  women  roamed  about  on  the  highways  as 
musicians,  dancers,  magicians,  in  the  company  of  wan- 
dering scholastics  and  priests,  and  flooded  the  markets 
and  fairs.  They  formed  special  divisions  in  the  troops  of 
foot-soldiers  where  they  were  organized  in  guilds  accord- 
ing to  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  were  assigned  to  the 
different  ranks  according  to  age  and  beauty.  By  severe 


*Would  he  not  be  fickle 
Who  would  choose  to  have  a  second  wife 
Beside  his  virtuous  one?    Speak,  Sir,  would  you? — 
Let  it  to  men  be  granted  but  to  women  not ! 

**Dr.    Charles    Buecher:     "The   Woman    Question    in    Mediaeval 
Times." 


Woman  in  the  Past  73 

penalty  they  were  forbidden  to  yield  to  any  man  outside 
of  the  prescribed  circle.  In  the  camp  they  had  to  help 
the  baggage-carriers  to  gather  in  hay,  straw  and  wood, 
to  fill  up  holes  and  ditches  and  to  clean  the  camp. 
During  sieges  it  was  their  task  to  fill  up  the  ditches  with 
brushwood,  branches  and  tufts  of  grass  to  facilitate  the 
attack;  they  helped  to  place  the  guns  in  position  and  to 
drag  them  along  when  they  became  stuck  in  the  muddy 
roads.*  To  give  some  relief  to  these  numerous  helpless 
women,  so  called  beguinages,  that  were  maintained  by 
the  municipality,  were  erected  in  many  cities  from  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  on.  Here  the  women 
were  given  homes  and  were  encouraged  to  lead  decent 
lives.  But  neither  their  institutions  nor  the  nunneries 
could  shelter  all  those  who  sought  help  and  protection. 

The  hindrances  to  marriage,  the  journeys  of  noblemen 
and  other  worldly  and  spiritual  lords  who  came  into  the 
cities  with  their  hosts  of  knights  and  attendants,  the 
young  men  within  the  cities  and,  last  but  not  least,  the 
married  men  who  were  not  troubled  much  by  moral 
scruples  but  believed  that  variety  was  the  spice  of  life, — 
all  these  created  a  demand  for  prostitutes  in  the  medieval 
towns.  As  every  trade  in  those  days  was  organized  into 
guilds  and  submitted  to  definite  regulations,  so  also  was 
prostitution.  In  all  the  larger  cities  brothels  were  main- 
tained that  were  municipal,  state  or  church  property  and 
whose  profits  went  to  fill  these  respective  treasuries.  The 
women  in  these  houses  had  a  senior-mistress  elected  by 
themselves,  whose  duty  it  was  to  maintain  order  and  who 
was  especially  charged  with  the  task  of  seeing  to  it  that 
no  competitors  outside  of  the  guild  harmed  the  legitimate 
trade.  If  such  competitors  were  caught,  they  had  to  pay 
a  legal  fine.  Thus  the  inhabitants  of  a  brothel  in  Nurem- 
berg complained  to  the  magistrate  about  the  competition 
of  women  who  were  not  members  of  their  guild :  "that 
other  keepers  also  maintain  women  who  go  upon  the 
streets  at  night  and  harbour  married  men  and  others,  and 
who  ply  their  trade  in  a  much  coarser  way,  and  that  such 
were  a  disgrace  and  should  not  be  permitted  in  this  prais- 


*Dr.  Charles  Buecher :  "The  Woman  Question  in  Medieval  Times.'' 


74  Woman  in  the  Mediaeval  Age 

worthy  town."*  The  brothels  enjoyed  special  protection ; 
breach  of  the  peace  in  their  vicinity  was  punished  more 
severely  than  elsewhere.  This  female  guild  was  also  en- 
titled to  appear  at  festivals  and  in  processions  in  which  it 
was  customary  for  all  the  guilds  to  participate.  They 
were  even  sometimes  invited  as  guests  to  princely  and 
official  banquets.  The  brothels  were  considered  desirable 
"for  the  protection  of  married  women  and  the  honor  of 
virgins."  This  was  the  same  argument  which  was  resorted 
to  in  order  to  justify  the  maintainance  of  brothels  by  the 
state  in  Athens.  "Nevertheless  barbarous  persecutions 
of  the  prostitutes  were  met  with,  that  came  from  the 
same  men  whose  demand  and  whose  money  maintained 
the  prostitutes.  Thus  Charlemagne  decreed  that  a  pros- 
titute should  be  brought  nude  upon  the  market  place  and 
be  flogged  there.  He  himself,  the  "most  Christian"  king 
and  emperor  had  no  less  than  six  wives  simultaneously. 
His  daughters,  evidently  following  their  father's  exam- 
ple, were  not  models  of  virtue  either.  Their  mode  of  life 
gave  him  many  unpleasant  hours,  and  they  brought  sev- 
eral illegitimate  children  into  his  house.  Alkuin,  a  friend 
and  advisor  to  Charlemagne,  warned  his  pupils  of  "the 
crowned  doves  who  fly  thru  the  Palatinate  at  night," 
meaning  the  emperor's  daughters. 

The  same  communities  that  officially  organized  and 
protected  the  brothels  and  granted  all  sorts  of  privileges 
to  the  prostitutes  inflicted  the  hardest  and  most  cruel 
punishments  upon  a  poor  forsaken  girl  who  had  gone 
wrong.  The  infanticide  who,  driven  to  despair,  had  killed 
her  own  offspring  was  subjected  to  cruel  death,  while  no 
one  bothered  about  the  unscrupulous  seducer.  Perhaps 
he  sat  among  the  judges  who  pronounced  the  death  sen- 
tence on  the  unfortunate  victim.  The  same  is  possible 
still.**  Adultery  of  wives  was  also  severely  punished ;  to 
be  put  in  the  pillory  was  the  least  she  might  expect.  But 


*Joh.  Scherr,  History  of  the  German  Woman,  4th  ed.  Leipsic,  1879 
**Leon  Richter  in  "La  femme  libre"  reports  a  case  where  a  servant 
girl  was  convicted  of  infanticide  by  the  father  of  her  child,  a  pious 
lawyer,  who  was  a  member  of  the  court.  After  the  girl's  conviction 
it  became  known  that  the  lawyer  himself  was  the  murderer  and  that 
she  was  innocent. 


Woman  in  the  Past  75 

adultery  of  husbands   was   concealed  by   the   cloak   of 
Christian  forbearance. 

In  Wuerzburg  it  was  customary  for  the  brothel-keeper 
to  take  an  oath  before  the  magistrate,  pledging  faith  and 
allegiance  to  the  city  and  that  he  would  diligently  enlist 
women.  Similar  oaths  were  taken  in  Nuremberg,  Ulm, 
Leipsic,  Cologne,  Frankfort,  and  others.  In  Ulm  the 
brothels  were  abolished  in  1537;  but  in  1551,  the  guilds 
moved  to  reinstate  them  "to  avoid  a  worse  state  of 
affairs."  When  strangers  of  note  visited  a  city,  prosti- 
tutes were  placed  at  their  disposal  at  the  city's  expense. 
When  King  Ladislaus  entered  Vienna  in  1452,  the  magis- 
trate sent  a  committee  of  public  prostitutes  to  meet  him, 
clad  in  transparant  gauze  that  disclosed  their  beautiful 
shapes.  Emperor  Charles  V,  upon. entering  Antwerp,  was 
also  received  by  a  committee  of  nude  girls,  a  historic 
scene  tnat  Hans  Makart  depicted  in  a  large  painting 
which  is  now  on  exhibition  in  the  museum  at  Hamburg. 
Such  occurrences  created  no  scandal  in  those  days. 

4. — Knighthood  and  the  Veneration  of  Women. 

Phantastic  writers  of  romance  and  scheming  persons 
have  endeavored  to  depict  the  mediaeval  age  as  an  espe- 
cially virtuous  one,  and  as  one  imbued  with  a  profound 
veneration  of  women.  The  time  of  the  minnesingers, 
from  the  twelfth  to  the  fourteenth  century,  is  dwelt  upon 
to  furnish  proof  to  this  assertion.  The  poetic  courtship 
of  the  knights,  that  was  first  introduced  by  the  Moriscos 
in  Spain,  is  supposed  to  prove  that  women  were  highly 
honored  at  that  time.  But  let  a  few  facts  be  remembered. 
Firstly,  the  knights  only  constituted  a  very  small  portion 
of  the  population,  and  in  the  same  way  their  ladies  con- 
stituted a  small  portion  of  the  women.  Secondly,  only  a 
very  limited  number  of  the  knights  practiced  this  knightly 
courtship ;  and  thirdly,  the  true  nature  of  this  custom  has 
been  considerably  misunderstood  or  distorted.  The  time 
when  knighthood  was  in  flower,  was  the  age  of  the  rule 
of  brute  force  in  Germany;  it  was  the  age  in  which  all 
bonds  of  law  and  order  were  broken,  and  the  knights 
practiced  extortion,  plundering  and  highway-robbery 
without  restraint.  Such  an  age  of  brute  force  is  not  one 


76  Woman  in  the  Mediaeval  Age 

in  which  mild  and  poetic  sentiments  predominate.  On 
the  contrary.  This  age  was  destined  to  shatter  the 
respect  for  the  female  sex  that  might  still  have  remained. 
The  knights,  in  the  country  as  well  as  in  the  towns,  were 
mostly  coarse,  brutal  fellows,  whose  chief  passion,  besides 
warfare  and  excessive  drinking,  was  the  unrestricted 
satisfaction  of  their  sexual  desires.  The  chroniclers  of 
that  time  tell  of  incessant  acts  of  violence  and  ravishment 
committed  by  the  nobility  of  town  and  country,  who  con- 
trolled the  municipal  governments  throughout  the  thir- 
teenth, fourteenth  and  into  the  fifteenth  centuries.  Be- 
cause the  knights  conducted  the  courts  in  the  towns,  and 
the  feudal  lords  passed  judgment  in  the  rural  districts, 
the  injured  persons  rarely  obtained  redress  of  their  griev- 
ances. It  is  a  great  exaggeration  then  to  assume  that 
their  customs  of  courtship  caused  the  ancient  nobility  to 
treat  women  with  special  respect  and  to  regard  them  as 
superior  beings. 

A  small  minority  of  the  knights  seem  to  have  been 
enthusiastic  over  feminine  beauty,  but  their  enthusiasm 
was  by  no  means  platonic  but  pursued  very  material  aims. 
Eve'n  that  clown  among  the  romantic  admirers  "of  lovely 
women,"  Ulrick  of  Lichtenstein  of  ridiculous  memory, 
was  a  platonic  lover  only  so  long  as  he  was  compelled  to 
be.  In  the  main,  this  romantic  worship  of  woman  was 
nothing  but  deification  of  the  mistress  at  the  expense  of 
the  legitimate  wife ;  it  was  nothing  but  courtesanship,  as 
it  has  existed  in  Greece  at  the  time  of  Pericles,  trans- 
planted into  medieval  Christianity.  The  mutual  seduction 
of  wriveswas  frequently  practiced  among  the  knights  also, 
as  it  is  still  practiced  in  certain  circles  of  our  bourgeoisie. 

The  open  manifestation  of  sensuality,  characteristic 
of  that  age,  constituted  a  frank  recognition  of  the  fact 
that  the  natural  desires  implanted  in  every  healthy,  adult 
human  being  rightfully  seek  satisfaction.  In  that  respect 
it  expressed  a  victory  of  healthy  nature  over  the  ascetic 
teachings  of  Christianity.  But  on  the  other  hand  it  must 
again  be  emphasized,  that  this  recognition  came  into  con- 
sideration for  the  one  sex  only,  while  the  other  sex  was 
treated  on  the  assumption  that  it  could  not  and  dare  not 
have  the  same  impulses.  The  slightest  transgression  by 


Woman  in  the  Past  77 

women  of  the  moral  laws  laid  down  for  them  by  men,  was 
punished  with  unmerciful  severity.  Women,  as  a  result 
of  constant  oppression  and  a  singular  education,  have 
become  so  accustomed  to  the  conception  of  their  rulers, 
that  they  still  consider  this  condition  quite  natural.  Were 
there  not  also  millions  of  slaves  who  considered  slavery  a 
natural  condition  and  who  would  never  have  liberated 
themselves  had  not  the  liberators  sprung  from  the  slave 
owning  class?  When  Prussian  peasants  were  to  be  eman- 
cipated from  serfdom,  they  petitioned  the  government  not 
to  emancipate  them,  "for  who  should  provide  for  them 
when  they  were  aged  or  ill?"  And  do  we  not  meet  with 
the  same  situation  in  the  modern  labor  movement?  How 
many  workingmen  still  permit  their  exploiters  to  influ- 
ence them  and  lead  them  at  will ! 

The  oppressed  needs  some  one  to  animate  and  inspire 
him,  because  he  lacks  the  initiative  for  independence.  It 
was  thus  in  the  present  day  movement  of  the  proletariat, 
and  it  is  the  same  in  the  struggle  for  the  emancipation  of 
women.  Even  the  bourgeoisie,  that  enjoyed  a  relatively 
more  favorable  position  in  its  struggle  for  independence, 
found  its  leaders  and  spokesmen  among  the  nobility  and 
clergy. 

Whatever  the  shortcomings  of  the  middle  ages  may 
have  been,  it  possessed  a  healthy  sensuality  which  sprang 
from  the  strong,  buoyant  nature  of  the  people,  and  which 
Christianity  could  not  suppress.  The  hypocritical  pru- 
dery and  concealed  lasciviousness  of  our  day,  that  fears  to 
call  a  spade  a  spade  and  to  speak  of  natural  things  in  a 
natural  way,  was  foreign  to  that  age.  Neither  was  it 
familiar  with  that  piquant  ambiguity  to  which  we  resort 
in  speaking  of  what  we  dare  not  name,  because  to  be 
prudish  and  unnatural  has  become  customary  with  us, 
and  which  is  all  the  more  dangerous  because  such  lan- 
guage allures,  but  does  not  satisfy,  allows  us  to  surmise 
but  does  not  express  clearly.  Our  social  conversations, 
our  novels  and  our  theaters  abound  with  these  piquant 
ambiguities,  and  their  effect  is  manifested.  This  spiri- 
tualism of  the  roue,  concealed  by  religious  spiritualism, 
has  a  powerful  influence. 


78  The  Reformation 

CHAPTER    V. 
The  Reformation. 

i. — Luther. 

The  healthy  sensuality  of  the  middle  ages  found  its 
classic  exponent  in  Luther.  We  are  here  not  so  much 
concerned  with  the  religious  reformer,  but  with  Luther, 
the  man.  In  regard  to  all  human  relations,  Luther's 
strong,  unsophisticated  nature  clearly  manifested  itself, 
and  caused  him  to  express  freely  and  without  reserve  his 
desire  for  love  and  enjoyment.  His  position  as  a  former 
Roman  clergyman  had  opened  his  eyes  and  had  taught 
him  from  experience  how  contrary  to  all  the  laws  of 
nature  were  the  lives  of  monks  and  nuns.  Therefore  he 
roundly  condemned  the  celibacy  of  priests  and  monks. 
Luther  says :  "Unless  specially  endowed  by  a  rare,  divine 
grace,  a  woman  can  no  more  dispense  with  a  man,  than 
she  can  dispense  with  food,  drink,  sleep  and  other  natural 
needs.  In  the  same  way  a  man  cannot  do  without  a 
woman.  The  cause  is  that  the  desire  to  propagate  the 
race  is  as  deeply  implanted  by  nature  as  the  desire  for 
food  and  drink.  Therefore  God  has  given  unto  the  human 
body  limbs,  veins,  circulation  and  all  that  serves  this  end. 
He  who  opposes  this,  and  will  not  let  nature  take  her 
course,  what  does  he  do  but  seek  to  prevent  nature  from 
being  nature,  fire  from  burning,  water  from  moistening, 
human  beings  from  eating,  drinking  and  sleeping?"  In 
his  sermon  on  marriage,  he  says :  "Just  as  it  is  not  within 
my  power  not  to  be  a  man,  so  it  is  not  in  thy  power  to 
do  without  a  man,  for  it  is  not  free  will  or  advice  but 
a  natural  necessity  that  every  man  must  have  a  woman 
and  that  every  woman  must  have  a  man."  But  Luther 
does  not  only  express  himself  so  strongly  in  favor  of  mar- 
riage and  the  necessity  of  sexual  relations,  he  also  ex- 
presses himself  as  opposed  to  it  that  the  church  and  mar- 
riage should  have  anything  in  common.  He  says  in  regard 
to  this :  "Know  that  marriage  is  something  extrinsic  as 
any  other  worldly  action.  As  I  may  eat,  drink,  sleep, 
walk,  ride  and  deal  with  any  heathen,  Jew,  Turk  or 


Woman  in  the  Past  79 

heretic,  so  to  one  of  these  I  may  also  become  and  remain 
married.  Do  not  observe  the  laws  of  fools  that  forbid 

such  marriages Heathens  are  men  and  women,  well 

and  wisely  created  by  God,  just  as  well  as  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul  and  St.  Luke,  not  to  speak  of  any  false  and 
wanton  Christian."  Luther  furthermore,  like  other  re- 
formers, opposed  all  restrictions  to  marriage,  and  favored 
permitting  divorcees  to  marry,  which  was  opposed  by  the 
church.  He  says :  "in  regard  to  matters  of  marriage  and 
divorce  among  us  I  say,  let  the  jurists  dispose  of  them, 
and  let  them  be  subject  to  worldly  rule,  since  matrimony 
is  a  worldly,  extrinsic  thing."  In  accordance  with  this 
view,  it  was  not  until  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century 
that  a  religious  ceremony  was  considered  essential  to  a 
legal  marriage  among  Protestants.  Until  then  the  so 
called  conscience  marriage  sufficed,  that  is,  a  marriage 
founded  upon  the  mutual  agreement  to  regard  one  an- 
other as  husband  and  wife  and  to  live  in  matrimonial 
relations  with  one  another.  According  to  German  law 
such  marriages  were  legal.  Luther  even  went  so  far  as 
to  adjudge  to  the  unsatisfied  party  in  a  marriage  contract 
— even  if  the  party  were  the  woman — the  right  to  seek 
satisfaction  outside  of  marriage,  "in  order  to  do  justice 
to  nature  that  can  not  be  resisted."*  In  this  matter 
Luther  sets  forth  opinions  that  would  rouse  many  of  our 
present  day  respectable  men  and  women,  who  always 
point  to  Luther  in  their  pious  zeal,  to  vehement  indigna- 
tion. In  his  treatise  "on  married  life,"  II,  146,  Jena  1522, 
he  says :  "if  a  healthy  woman  is  joined  in  wedlock  to  an 
impotent  man  and  could  not  nor  would  for  her  honor's 
sake  openly  choose  another,  she  should  speak  to  her  hus- 
band thus:  "See,  my  dear  husband,  thou  hast  deceived 
me  and  my  young  body  and  endangered  my  honor  and 
salvation,  before  God  there  is  no  honor  between  us.  Suf- 
fer that  I  maintain  a  secret  marriage  with  thy  brother  or 
closest  friend  while  thou  remainest  my  husband  in  name. 
That  thy  property  may  not  fall  heir  to  strangers;  will- 
ingly be  deceived  by  me  as  you  have  unwillingly  deceived 


*Dr.  Carl  Hagen — Germany's  Literary  and  Religious  Conditions 
during  the  Reformation. 


80  The  Reformation 

me."  It  should  be  the  husband's  duty,  Luther  goes  on 
to  say,  to  consent  to  such  arrangement.  "If  he  will  not 
she  has  the  right  to  abandon  him  and  go  into  another 
country  and  marry  another  man.  In  the  same  way  if  a 
woman  will  not  perform  her  conjugal  duty,  the  man  has 
the  right  to  seek  another  woman ;  only  he  should  first  tell 
his  wife."*  We  see,  the  opinions  set  forth  by  the  great 
reformer  are  very  radical  and  even  immoral,  when  viewed 
in  the  light  of  our  age,  abounding  with  prudery  and 
hypocrisy.  But  Luther  only  expressed  the  popular  con- 
ceptions of  his  age.  The  following  is  told  by  Jacob 
Grimm :  "If  a  man  cannot  satisfy  his  wedded  wife,  let 
him  take  her  gently  upon  his  back  and  carry  her  to  his 
neighbors.  There  let  him  set  her  down  softly,  without 
anger  or  rudeness  but  upon  mutual  agreement,  and  let 
him  appeal  to  his  neighbors  to  help  his  wife  in  her  need. 
If  they  will  not  or  can  not,  then  let  him  send  her  to  the 
nearest  fair.  There  shall  she  appear,  becomingly  dressed 
and  adorned,  wearing  a  gold  embroidered  veil  as  a  token 
that  she  may  be  wooed.  If  after  all  she  returns  from  the 
fair  still  unsatisfied,  then  may  the  devil  help  her!" 

The  peasant  of  the  middle  age  primarily  sought  mar- 
riage for  the  purpose  of  having  heirs,  and  if  he  was  unable 
to  beget  them  himself,  being  a  practical  man,  he  left  this 
pleasure  to  another  without  having  particular  moral  scru- 
ples about  it.  The  main  object  was  to  attain  his  purpose. 
We  repeat :  Man  does  not  control  his  property,  he  is  con- 
trolled by  it. 

The  above  quotations  from  the'  writings  and  sermons 
of  Luther  are  of  special  importance  because  the  views  in 
regard  to  marriage  expressed  in  them  are  diametrically 
opposed  to  those  maintained  by  the  church  to-day.  Luther 
and  the  other  reformers  went  still  further  in  matters  per- 
taining to  marriage  but,  it  mr.st  be  admitted,  for  oppor- 
tunistic reasons,  in  order  to  please  such  sovereigns  whose 
lasting  support  and  good  will  they  sought  to  win  and  to 
maintain.  The  landgrave  of  Hessia,  Philip  I,  who  was 
in  sympathy  with  the  reformation,  had  a  legal  wife,  but 
fell  in  love  with  another  woman  who  refused  to  yield  to 


*Dr.  Carl  Hagen. 


Woman  in  the  Past  81 

his  entreaties  unless  he  would  marry  her.  It  was  a  delicate 
case.  To  become  divorced  from  his  wife  without  good 
and  sufficient  reason  would  imply  a  great  scandal ;  to  be 
married  to  two  wromen  simultaneously  was  a  shocking 
occurrence  with  a  Christian  sovereign  of  the  newer  era, 
bound  to  create  a  still  greater  scandal.  Nevertheless 
amorous  Philip  chose  the  latter  alternative.  It  only  was 
necessary  to  determine  that  this  step  was  not  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  teachings  of  the  Bible,  and  to  obtain  the  con- 
sent of  the  reformers,  especially  Luther  and  Melanchton. 
The  landgrave  then  opened  negotiations  with  Butzer,  who 
consented  to  the  plan  and  promised  to  win  Luther  and 
Melanchton.  Butzer  explained  his  view  by  pointing  out 
that  to  have  several  wives  simultaneously  was  not  in  con- 
flict with  the  gospel,  since  Paul,  who  had  mentioned 
many  who  shall  not  inherit  the  kingdom  of  God,  had  said 
nothing  about  those  who  have  two  wives.  Paul  had 
decreed  that  a  bishop  and  his  servants  should  not  have 
more  than  one  wife.  If  it  had  been  necessary  that  no  man 
should  have  more  than  one  wife,  he  would  have  stated 
this  and  would  have  forbidden  polygamy.  Luther  and 
Melanchton  declared  themselves  in  accordance  with  these 
views  and  consented  to  the  double  marriage,  after  the 
landgrave's  wife  had  also  given  her  consent  under  the 
condition  "that  he  should  perform  nis  conjugal  duty 
toward  her  even  more  than  heretofore."*  Luther  had 
been  previously  troubled  by  the  question  whether  bigamy 
was  permissible  when  asked  to  give  his  consent  to  the 
double  marriage  of  Henry  VIII  of  England.  That  can 
be  seen  from  a  letter  which  he  wrote  to  the  Saxon  chan- 
cellor Brink  in  January  1524.  In  this  letter  he  wrote  that 
on  principle  he,  Luther,  could  not  object  to  bigamy  since 
it  was  not  in  conflict  with  the  Holy  Scripture,**  but  that 
he  considered  it  offensive  when  occurring  among  Chris- 
tians, for  there  were  some  things  from  which  Christians 
should  refrain  even  if  they  were  not  forbidden.  After  the 


*John  Janssen — History  of  the  German  People. 
**This  is  true  and  can  be  explained  from  the  fact  that  the  Bible 
had  its  origin  at  a  time  when  polygamy  prevailed  both  among  the 
Eastern  and  Western  people;  but  in  the  sixteenth  century  it  never- 
theless was  in  direct  opposition  to  custom. 


82  The  Reformation 

marriage  of  the  landgrave,  which  actually  took  place 
during  March  1540,  he  wrote  (April  10)  in  reply  to  a 
letter  of  appreciation  from  him :  "I  am  glad  that  Your 
Grace  is  pleased  by  the  advice  we  have  given ;  but  we 
should  prefer  to  have  secrecy  maintained.  Otherwise  the 
coarse  peasants,  seeking  to  follow  the  example  set  by  the 
landgrave,  might  present  the  same  or  even  better  causes, 
which  would  give  us  no  end  of  trouble." 

Melanchton  probably  had  fewer  scruples  in  giving  his 
consent  to  the  double  marriage  of  the  landgrave,  for  he 
had  previously  written  to  Henry  VIII,  that  every  sov- 
ereign was  entitled  to  introduce  polygamy  in  his  realm. 
But  the  double  marriage  of  the  landgrave  caused  so  much 
unpleasant  notoriety  in  his  country,  that  in  1541  he  had 
a  pamphlet  distributed  in  which  polygamy  was  defended 
on  the  ground  that  it  was  not  in  opposition  to  the  Holy 
Scripture.  But  conceptions  had  been  greatly  modified 
since  the  ninth  or  twelfth  century  when  polygamy  was 
accepted  without  averse  criticism.  The  double  marriage 
of  the  landgrave  of  Hessia  was  however  not  the  only  one 
that  gave  offense  to  wide  circles.  Such  princely  double 
marriages  were  repeated  both  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  as  Avill  be  shown. 

When  Luther  declared  the  satisfaction  of  sensual 
desire  to  be  a  law  of  nature,  he  only  expressed  what  his 
contemporaries  thought  and  Avhat  the  men  claimed  as 
their  privilege.  By  the  reformation,  which  did  away  with 
the  celibacy  of  the  clergy  and  abolished  the  monasteries 
in  the  Protestant  countries,  he  gave  to  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  men  and  women  the  possibility  to  seek  legitimate 
satisfaction  of  their  natural  desires.  Hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  others,  of  course,  remained  excluded  from  this 
possibility  by  the  existing  forms  of  property  and  the 
laws  founded  upon  them. 

The  reformation  was  the  protest  of  the  rising  bour- 
geoisie against  the  constraint  of  feudal  conditions  in 
church,  state  and  society.  This  rising  bourgeoisie  strug- 
gled for  liberation  from  the  narrow  bonds  of  the  guild, 
the  court  and  the  papal  anathema ;  it  strove  for  centraliza- 
tion of  the  powers  of  the  state,  simplification  of  the 


Woman  in  the  Past  83 

extravagant    church    affairs,    and    the    abolition    of   the 
numerous  abodes  of  idle  persons,  the  monasteries. 

Luther  represented  these  endeavors  of  the  bourgeoisie 
upon  the  religious  field.  When  he  stood  for  the  freedom 
of  marriage,  it  was  the  bourgeois  marriage  that  was  real- 
ized only  in  our  day  by  the  civil  marriage  laws,  and  the 
freedom  of  migration  and  freedom  of  choice  in  trade  and 
domicile.  We  will  see  to  what  extent  the  position  of 
woman  was  modified  by  these  changes.  During  the 
reformation  this  change  of  development  had  not  yet  been 
reached.  While  on  the  one  hand  the  reformation  made 
marriage  possible  for  many  people,  on  the  other  hand  free 
sexual  intercourse  was  subjected  to  the  most  bitter  per- 
secution. While  the  Catholic  clergy  had  maintained 
a  certain  tolerance  toward  sexual  excess,  the  Protestant 
clergy,  having  been  provided  for  itself,  declaimed  against 
it  with  redoubled  zeal.  Wrar  wras  waged  against  the  pub- 
lic brothels  that  were  declared  to  be  the  devil's  dens. 
Prostitutes  were  persecuted  as  daughters  of  Satan,  and 
every  woman  who  had  "fallen"  was  considered  a  paragon 
of  wickedness  and  was  subjected  to  relentless  persecution. 
The  merry,  life  loving  townsman  of  the  middle 
ages  became  a  bigoted,  austere,  sombre  philistine,  who 
lived  miserly  that  his  later  day  bourgeois  descendants 
might  live  all  the  more  extravagantly.  The  honorable 
citizen  with  his  stiff  cravat,  his  narrow  intellectual 
horizon,  his  severe  but  hypocritical  morality,  became  the 
prototype  of  society.  Legitimate  wives  who  had  not 
favored  the  sensuality  tolerated  by  the  Catholicism  of  the 
middle  ages,  were  generally  better  pleased  by  the  Puritan 
spirit  of  Protestantism.  But  other  causes  that  had  an 
unfavorable  influence  on  conditions  in  Germany  gen- 
erally, also  influenced  the  position  of  women  unfavorably. 

2. — Results  of  the  Reformation — The  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Transformations  in  the  conditions  of  production,  ex- 
change and  finance,  that  were  brought  about  especially 
by  the  discovery  of  America,  and  the  discovery  of 
the  passage  to  India,  resulted  in  a  great  social 
reaction  for  Germany.  Germany  ceased  to  be 
the  center  of  European  commerce.  The  German 


84  The  Reformation 

trades  and  manufactures  declined.  At  the  same  time 
the  religious  reformation  had  destroyed  the  political 
unity  of  the  nation.  Under  the  cloak  of  the  reformation, 
the  German  princes  sought  to  emancipate  themselves 
from  imperial  rule.  On  the  other  hand,  these  princes 
oppressed  the  nobility  and  favored  the  cities  to  serve 
their  own  ends.  Some  of  the  cities  voluntarily  placed 
themselves  under  the  rule  of  the  princes,  driven  to  this 
step  by  conditions  that  were  steadily  growing  worse. 
The  bourgeoisie  upon  seeing  their  income  threatened, 
tried  to  make  the  restrictions  that  were  intended  to  guard 
them  against  undesirable  competition  more  and  more 
rigorous,  and  the  princes  willingly  conceded  their  de- 
mands. The  ossification  of  conditions  increased,  but  the 
general  impoverishment  increased  likewise. 

Another  result  of  the  reformation  were  the  religious 
struggles  and  persecutions — used  by  the  princes  to  serve 
their  own  political  and  economic  ends — that  raged  in 
Germany  with  some  interruptions  for  over  a  century, 
and  finally  ended  with  its  complete  exhaustion  at  the 
end  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Germany  had  become,  a 
vast  field  of  corpses  and  ruins.  Entire  countries  and 
provinces  had  been  devastated,  hundreds  of  cities  and 
thousands  of  villages  partly  or  completely  destroyed, 
and  many  of  them  had  been  wiped  from  the  surface  of 
the  earth  forever.  In  many  places  the  population  had 
been  reduced  to  a  third,  a  fourth,  a  fifth,  even  an  eighth 
or  a  tenth  of  its  original  number.  Such  was  the  case  in 
Nuremberg,  and  in  the  entire  Franconian  province.  In 
this  utmost  need,  in  order  to  increase  the  population  in 
the  depopulated  towns  and  villages,  the  unusual  measure 
was  occasionally  resorted  to  of  permitting  one  man  to 
have  two  wives.  Men  had  been  decimated  by  the  wars, 
but  there  was  a  superabundance  of  women.  On  the  I4th 
of  February  1650,  the  Franconian  district  council  at 
Nuremberg  decreed  that  "men  under  60  should  not  be 
admitted  into  monasteries" ;  it  furthermore  decreed  that 
"those  clergymen  who  were  not  members  of  an  order 
should  become  married."  Moreover,  "every  man  should 
be  permitted  to  wed  two  wives,  but  the  men  should  be 
frequently  reminded  and  exhorted  from  the  pulpits  to 


Woman  in  the  Past  85 

employ  good  judgment  and  discretion,  that  a  married 
man  who  ventured  to  maintain  two  wives  should  not  only 
provide  well  for  both  of  them,  but  should  also  endeavor 
to  avoid  ill  feeling  between  them/'  So  even  the  pulpits 
were  employed  to  make  propaganda  for  the  double  mar- 
riage and  to  lay  down  rules  of  conduct  for  the  men. 

Commerce  and  industry  almost  came  to  a  standstill 
during  this  long  period;  in  many  instances  they  were 
almost  completely  destroyed  and  picked  up  but  very 
gradually.  A  large  portion  of  the  population  had  become 
demoralized  and  brutalized  and  disaccustomed  to  all 
regular  work.  During  the  wars,  troops  of  mercenary 
soldiers  had  crossed  Germany  from  one  end  to  the  other, 
plundering,  destroying,  ravishing  and  murdering,  a  terror 
alike  to  friend  and  foe.  After  the  wars  countless  numbers 
of  beggars,  robbers  and  vagabonds  maintained  the  popu- 
lation in  constant  terror  and  made  commerce  and  all 
traffic  difficult  or  impossible.  To  the  female  sex  espe- 
cially it  was  a  time  of  great  suffering.  In  this  period  of 
dissoluteness  the  contempt  of  woman  had  increased  to 
the  utmost,  and  the  general  condition  of  unemployment 
weighed  most  heavily  upon  her  shoulders.  Like  the  male 
vagabonds,  thousands  of  women  populated  the  highways 
and  forests  and  filled  the  alms-houses  and  prisons.  All 
these  sufferings  were  still  increased  by  the  forcible  expul- 
sion of  numerous  peasant  families  by  the  greedy  nobility. 
Since  the  reformation  the  nobility  had  become  more  and 
more  subjected  to  princely  rule,  and  by  holding  court  and 
military  positions  their  dependence  on  the  princes  had 
constantly  increased.  Now  they  tried  to  reimburse  them- 
selves for  the  losses  sustained  through  the  princes  by 
robbing  the  peasants.  To  the  princes,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  reformation  offered  the  desired  excuse  to  acquire  the 
property  of  the  church,  which  they  proceeded  to  do  on 
a  large  scale.  Prince  August  of  Saxony,  for  instance, 
had,  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  acquired  no  less 
than  300  ecclesiastical  estates.*  His  brothers  and  cousins, 
the  other  Protestant  sovereigns,  above  all  those  of  the 
House  of  Hohenzollern,  did  likewise.  The  nobility  fol- 

*John  Janssen — History  of  the  German  People. 


86  The  Reformation 

lowed  their  example  by  appropriating  the  remaining  com- 
munal property,  and  by  driving  both  free  peasants  and 
serfs  from  hearth  and  home  anu  taking  possession  of 
their  estates.  The  unsuccessful  peasant  revolts  during 
the  sixteenth  century  gave  them  the  desired  pretext  for 
such  action,  and  after  the  attempt  had  once  succeeded, 
new  pretexts  were  constantly  found  to  continue  this 
forcible  method.  Various  schemes  and  distortions  of 
justice  were  resorted  to,  made  easy  by  the  Roman  law 
which  had  been  established  in  Germany  in  the  meantime, 
to  increase  the  property  of  the  nobility  by  forcing  the 
peasants  to  sell  theirs  at  lowest  prices,  or  by  simply 
expropriating  them.  Entire  villages  and  the  farms  of 
entire  districts  were  usurped  in  this  manner.  To  quote 
just  a  few  examples:  Of  12*543  knightly  peasant  estates 
which  still  existed  in  the  province  of  Mecklenburg  during 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  onlv  1,213  remained  in  the  year 
1848.  In  the  province  of  Pomerania  12,000  farms  were 
abandoned  since  1628.  The  transformations  in  the 
methods  of  farming  that  took  place  during  the  seven- 
teenth century  gave  a  further  impulse  to  the  nobility  to 
expropriate  the  peasants  and  to  transform  the  last  rem- 
nants of  communal  propertv  into  their  private  estates. 
The  rotation  of  crops  had  been  introduced,  which  pro- 
vided for  changes  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  in  definite 
periods  of  time.  Tilled  land  was  occasionally  trans- 
formed into  pasture  which  favored  cattle-breeding  and 
made  it  possible  to  diminish  the  number  of  workers. 

In  the  cities  conditions  were  not  much  better  than  in 
the  country.  Formerly  women  had  been  permitted  to 
acquire  the  title  of  master- workman  and  to  employ 
journevmen  and  apprentices  without  any  opposition  from 
the  male  craftsmen.  They  were  even  compelled  to  join 
the  guilds  to  force  them  to  meet  the  same  conditions  of 
competition.  So  there  were  independent  women  workers 
among  the  linen-weavers,  the  cloth-weavers,  the  carpet- 
weavers  and  tailors.  There  were  female  sfold-smiths, 
girdle-makers,  harness-makers,  etc.  We  find  women 
employed  as  furriers  in  Frankfort  and  the  Silesian  cities : 
as  bakers  in  the  cities  along  the  Rhine :  as  girdle-makers 
and  embroiders  of  coats  of  arms  in  Cologne  and  Strass- 


Woman  in  the  Past  87 

burg;  as  harness-makers  in  Bremen;  as  cloth-shearers  in 
Frankfort  "as  tanners  in  Nuremberg;  as  gold-smiths  in 
Cologne.*  But  as  the  circumstances  of  the  craftsmen 
grew  more  and  more  unfavorable,  a  sentiment  of  ill  will 
against  the  female  competitors  arose.  In  France,  women 
were  excluded  from  the  trades  at  the  close  of  the  four- 
teenth century ;  in  Germany,  not  until  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  At  first  they  were  forbidden  to 
become  master-workmen — with  the  exception  of  widows 
— later  on  they  were  also  excluded  from  becoming  assist- 
ants. Protestantism,  by  abolishing  the  ostentatious 
Catholic  cult,  had  seriously  injured  or  entirely  destroyed 
a  number  of  artistic  crafts,  and  these  were  the  very  crafts 
in  which  many  women  had  been  employed.  The  confis- 
cation and  secularization  of  church  property  resulted  in 
a  decline  of  charitable  work,  and  widows  and  orphans 
were  the  main  sufferers. 

The  general  economic  decline  that  manifested  itself 
during  the  sixteenth  century,  as  a  result  of  all  the  enu- 
merated causes,  and  lasted  through  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, caused  the  marriage  laws  to  become  more  and  more 
severe.  Journeymen  and  people  employed  in  menial 
service  (men  and  maid  servants)  were  prohibited  entirely 
from  marrying,  unless  they  could  prove  that  there  was 
no  danger  of  their  future  families  becoming  a  burden  to 
the  community  in  which  they  lived.  Marriages  con- 
tracted in  opposition  to  the  legal  premises  were  punished 
frequently  severely,  sometimes  barbarously.  Accord- 
ing to  Bavarian  law,  for  instance,  the  penalties  were  im- 
prisonment and  public  flogging.  Illegal  marriages, 
that  became  more  frequent  as  the  marriage  laws  became 
more  severe,  were  subjected  to  especially  violent  perse- 
cution. All  minds  were  ruled  by  the  prevailing  fear  of 
over-population,  and  to  diminish  the  numbers  of  beggars 
and  vagabonds,  the  various  rulers  enacted  one  law  upon 
another,  and  each  was  more  severe  than  the  preceding 
one. 


*Dr.  Carl  Buecher — The  Woman  Question  in  the  Middle  Age. 


88  The  Eighteenth  Century 

CHAPTER  VI. 

The  Eighteenth  Century. 

• 

i. — Court  Life  in  Germany. 

Following  the  example  set  by  Louis  XIV.  of  France, 
most  of  the  princely  courts,  that  were  very  numerous  ?n 
Germany  in  those  days,  indulged  in  an  extravagance  of 
outward  display,  especially  in  the  maintenance  of  con- 
cubines, that  were  in  no  relation  to  the  size  and  pro- 
ductiveness of  their  small  domains.  The  history  of  the 
courts  of  the  eighteenth  century  constitutes  one  of  the 
ugliest  chapters  of  history.  One  ruler  tried  to  excel  the 
other  in  hollow  conceit,  mad  extravagance  and  costly 
military  sport.  But  it  was  especially  in  the  affairs  with 
their  courtesans  that  the  wildest  excesses  were  indulged 
in.  It  is  hard  to  tell  which  of  the  many  German  courts 
excelled  in  this  extravagant  mode  of  living  that  had  a 
corrupting  influence  on  public  life.  It  was  one  to-day 
and  another  to-morrow.  None  of  the  German  states  were 
spared  this  disgrace.  The  nobility  imitated  the  sover- 
eigns and  in  the  capitals  the  bourgeoisie  imitated  the 
nobility.  If  the  daughter  of  a  bourgeois  family  was  for- 
tunate enough  to  please  one  of  the  gentlemen  of  the  court 
or  His  Serene  Highness  himself,  in  nineteen  cases  out 
of  twenty  she  considered  herself  highly  favored,  and  the 
family  willingly  consented  to  her  becoming  a  princely 
or  royal  concubine.  Among  the  families  of  the  nobility 
the  same  was  the  case  if  one  of  their  daughters  found 
favor  with  the  sovereign.  Wide  circles  were  dominated 
by  an  utter  lack  of  character  and  modesty.  It  was  worst 
of  all  in  the  two  chief  cities  of  Germany,  Vienna  and 
Berlin.  Although  during  a  great  part  of  the  century- 
Vienna  was  ruled  by  Maria  Theresa,  known  for  her  moral 
austerity,  she  was  powerless  against  the  doings  of  the 
rich,  profligate  nobility  and  an  eagerly  imitative  bour- 
geoisie. By  establishing  purity  commissions,  that  re- 
sulted in  an  extensive  system  of  espionage,  she  caused 
much  bitterness  and  made  herself  ridiculous.  The  results 
amounted  to  nothing.  In  frivolous  Vienna  during  the 


Woman  in  the  Past  89 

second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  proverbs  were  cir- 
culated like  the  following:  one  should  love  one's  neigh- 
bor.like  meself ;  that  means,  one  should  love  one's  neigh- 
bor's wife  like  one's  own" ;  or,  "If  the  wife  turns  to  the 
right  the  husband  may  turn  to  the  left;  if  she  takes  to 
herself  a  man  servant,  let  him  take  a  lady  friend."  How 
frivolously  marriage  and  adultery  were  viewed  at  that 
time,  may  be  seen  from  a  letter  written  by  the  poet 
Christian  von  Kleist  to  his  friend  Gleim  in  1751.  It  con- 
tains the  following  passage :  "I  suppose  you  heard  of 
the  adventure  of  the  landgrave  Henry.  He  has  sent  his 
wife  to  his  country  seat  and  intends  to  get  a  separation 
from  her  because  he  found  her  with  the  Prince  of  Hoi- 
stein.  The  margrave  would  have  acted  more  wisely  if 
he  had  kept  the  affair  secret  instead  of  causing  all  Berlin 
and  half  of  the  world  to  speak  of  him.  Besides,  one 
should  not  judge  a  natural  occurrence  so  severely,  espe- 
cially one  who  is  not  over  virtues  himself.  Disgust  is 
bound  to  result  in  matrimony,  anoby  their  acquaintance 
with  other  amiable  persons  all  men  and  women  are  in- 
duced to  be  faithless.  How  can  we  be  punished  for  some- 
thing we  have  been  forced  to  do?"  In  1772  the  British 
ambassador,  Lord  Malmesbury,  wrote  the  following  in 
regard  to  conditions  in  Berlin :  "moral  depravity  prevails 
among  both  sexes  of  all  classes.  To  this  is  added  a  gen- 
eral insufficiency  of  means,  due  partly  to  the  heavy  taxes 
imposed  by  the  king,  and  partly  to  the  love  of  luxury 
introduced  by  his  grandfather.  The  men  lead  a  dissolute 
life  notwithstanding  their 'limited  means,  and  the  women 
are  shameless  harlots.  They  deliver  themselves  up  to 
the  one  able  to  pay  the  highest  price ;  modesty  and  true 
love  are  foreign  to  them." 

The  worst  conditions  existed  in  Berlin  during  the  rule 
of  Frederick  William  II.  from  1786  to  1797.  He  set  his 
people  the  worst  possible  example.  His  court  chaplain, 
Zoellner,  even  degraded  himself  by  marrying  the  king 
to  his  courtesan,  Julie  von  Voss,  although  he  had  another 
wife;  and  when  she  died  soon  after  in  childbirth,  Zoellner 
again  consented  to  marry  the  king  to  another  one  of  his 
courtesans,  the  Countess  Sophie  von  Doenhoff.  Other 
rulers  had  set  an  equally  bad  example  at  the  beginning 


go  The  Eighteenth  Century 

of  the  century.  In  July,  1/06,  Duke  Louis  of  Wurtemberg 
married,  as  an  additional  wife,  his  courtesan,  Grave- 
nitz,  the  "corrupter  of  the  country/'  as  she  is  still  called 
in  Wurtemberg.  His  cousin,  Duke  Leopold,  still  ex- 
celled him  in  profligacy,  for  he  had  three  wives  simul- 
taneously, two  of  which  were  sisters.  Of  his  thirteen 
children  he  joined  two  in  marriage.  The  doings  of  these 
sovereigns  caused  much  comment  among  their  subjects, 
but  that  was  all.  The  marriage  of  the  Duke  of  Wurtem- 
berg with  Graevenitz  was  annulled  by  imperial  inter- 
vention. But  she  entered  into  a  mock  marriage  with  a 
profligate  count,  and  thereupon  remained  for  twenty 
years  more  the  duke's  concubine  and  the  "corrupter  of 
the  country." 

2. — Commercialism  and  the  New  Marriage  Laws. 

The  increasing  power  of  sovereigns  and  the  formation 
of  larger  states  had  led  to  the  institution  of  standing 
armies.  These  standing  armies  and  the  extravagant 
mode  of  life  indulged  in  at  most  of  the  courts,  could  not 
be  maintained  without  heavy  taxation,  and  to  make  such 
taxation  possible  a  large,  taxable  population  was  required. 
Therefore  governments  from  the  eighteenth  century  on, 
especially  those  of  the  larger  states,  adopted  measures 
for  increasing  the  population  and  for  heightening  the 
taxability  of  the  inhabitants.  The  foundation  for  such 
measures  had  been  established  by  the  social  and  economic 
transformations  referred  to  above,  i.  e.,  the  discovery  of 
America,  the  discovery  of  the  passage  to  India,  and  the 
circumnavigation  of  Africa.  This  transformation  first 
manifested  itself  in  Western  Europe,  but  later  in  Ger- 
many also.  The  newly  opened  thoroughfare  had  created 
.new  commercial  relations  of  an  extent  undreamt  of  until 
then.  Portugal,  Spain,  the  Netherlands  and  England 
were  the  first  to  profit  by  the  transformation ;  but  France 
and  eventually  Germany  also  were  benefited  by  it.  Of 
all  these  countries  Germany  was  most  retarded  in  devel- 
opment, as  a  result  of  the  numerous  religious  wars  and 
its  political  disunity.  The  establishment  of  a  world 
market  and  the  constant  opening  of  new  markets  for  the 
products  of  European  industry,  not  only  revolutionized 


Woman  in  the  Past  91 

the  methods  of  production,  but  also  revolutionized  the 
views,  sentiments  and  conceptions  of  the  European 
nations  and  their  governments.  The  former  mode  of 
production,  destined  to  supply  only  the  daily  needs  of  a 
given  center  and  its  immediate  vicinity,  was  superseded 
by  manufacture  on  a  large  scale,  which  implies  the  em- 
ployment of  a  large  number  of  workers  and  an  increased 
division  of  labor.  The  merchants  possessing  large  finan- 
cial resources  and  broadness  of  perception,  became  the 
leaders  along  these  new  lines  of  industry  that  partly 
replaced  and  partly  abolished  the  old  handicrafts  and 
put  an  end  to  their  guild  organization.  Thereby  a  period 
had  been  ushered  in  which  made  it  possible  for  woman 
to  resume  her  industrial  activity.  The  textile  industries; 
cloth  manufactury  and  the  manufacture  of  laces  opened 
up  to  her  new  fields  of  activity.  At  the  close  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  we  already  find  100,000  women  and  80,000 
children  employed  in  the  textile  and  printing  trades  of 
England  and  Scotland,  unfortunately  under  conditions, 
both  in  regard  to  wages  and  hours  of  work,  that  were 
simply  appalling.  Similar  conditions  prevailed  in  France 
at  the  same  time,  where  also  tens  of  thousands  of  women 
were  employed  in  various  manufactures. 

This  economic  development  demanded  more  people, 
and  as  the  population  had  been  greatly  diminished  by 
the  wars  of  conquest  in  Europe  during  the  sixteenth, 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  and  by  the  expedi- 
tions of  discovery  beyond  the  seas,  the  more  advanced 
governments  found  it  necessary  to  facilitate  marriage  and 
the  right  of  settling.  Spain,  that  by  its  imperialistic 
policy  had  become  greatly  depopulated,  was  obliged  as 
early  as  1623  to  pass  a  law  exempting  from  taxes  for  a 
number  of  years  all  persons  who  became  married  between 
the  ages  of  18  and  25.  Poor  persons  were  even  given  a 
dowry  from  public  funds.  Parents  who  had  six  or  more 
male  children  were  entirely  exempt  from  taxes.  Spain 
also  encouraged  immigration  and  colonization. 

King  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  who  had  decimated  his 
people  by  his  numerous  wars,  found  it  necessary  to  coun- 
teract this  devastation  by  exempting  from  taxes  for  from 
four  to  five  years  all  taxpayers,  who  constituted  a  great 


92  The  Eighteenth  Century 

majority  of  the  population,  if  they  became  married  before 
the  twentieth  or  twenty-first  year  of  age.  Complete 
exemption  from  taxes  was,  furthermore,  guaranteed  to 
all  who  had  ten  living  children,  provided  that  none  of 
these  had  become  a  priest,  a  monk  or  a  nun.  Noblemen 
having  the  same  number  of  children,  provided  that  none 
of  them  had  become  priests,  monks  or  nuns,  received  an 
annual  pension  of  from  1,000  to  2,000  livres.  Citizens  not 
subject  to  taxation  under  the  same  conditions  received 
one-half  of  this  amount.  Marshal  Maurice  of  Saxony 
even  advised  Louis  XV.  not  to  permit  marriages  to  be 
contracted  for  a  longer  period  than  five  years. 

In  Prussia,  by  laws  enacted  in  the  years  1688,  1721, 
1726  and  1736,  and  by  various  government  measures, 
endeavors  were  made  to  encourage  immigration;  espe- 
cially were  the  immigrants  welcomed  who  had  been  sub- 
jected to  religious  persecution  in  France  and  Austria. 
The  theories  in  regard  to  population  maintained  by  Fred- 
erick the  Great  were  expressed  with  brutal  frankness  in 
a  letter  written  by  him  to  Voltaire  on  the  26th  of  August. 
1741.  He  wrote:  "I  consider  men  as  a  herd  of  deer  in 
the  deer  park  of  some  great  lord,  having  no  other  task 
but  to  populate  the  park."  By  his  wars  he  certainly  made 
it  necessary  to  have  his  deer  park  repopulated.  In 
Austria,  Wurtemberg  and  Brunswick  immigration  was 
also  encouraged  and  there,  as  in  Prussia,  emigration  was 
forbidden.  Furthermore,  in  the  course  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  England  and  France  removed  all  obstacles  to 
marriage  and  settlement,  and  other  nations  followed  their 
example.  During  three-fourths  of  the  eighteenth  century 
political  economists  as  well  as  the  governments  con- 
sidered a  large  population  the  greatest  good  fortune  to 
the  state.  Only  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  and  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  reversion  of 
opinion  took  place.  This  was  due  to  economic  crises 
and  to  warlike  and  revolutionary  events,  that  continued 
during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  especially 
in  Germany  and  Austria.  The  age  at  which  marriage 
was  permitted  was  raised  again,  and  proofs  were  required 
showing  that  the  contracting  parties  were  assured  of  a 
certain  amount  of  wealth  or  a  secure  income,  and  could 


Woman  in  the  Past  93 

maintain  a  given  standard  of  living.  To  the  destitute, 
marriage  was  made  impossible,  and  the  municipalities 
were  given  a  great  influence  in  determining  under  what 
conditions  marriages  might  be  contracted.  Occasionally 
peasants  were  even  forbidden  to  build  their  little  homes, 
or  compelled  to  tear  them  down  when  they  had  been 
built  without  princely  permission.  Only  in  Prussia  and 
Saxony  the  marriage  laws  remained  comparatively  liberal. 
Since  human  nature  will  not  be  suppressed,  the  result  of 
all  these  hindrances  to  marriage  was,  that  in  spite  of  all 
the  harrassing  and  persecution,  illicit  relations  greatly 
increased,  and  that  in  some  German  states  the  number 
of  illegal  children  was  almost  as  great  as  that  of  the  legal 
ones.  Such  was  the  fruit  of  a  paternal  government  that 
prided  itself  on  its  Christian  morality. 

3. — The  French   Revolution  and  the  Rise  of  Industry. 

In  those  days  the  married  woman  of  the  middle  class 
lived  in  severe  domestic  retirement.  The  number  of  her 
domestic  duties  was  so  large,  that  it  was  necessary  for 
the  conscientious  housewife  to  be  at  her  post  from  morn- 
ing till  night,  and  frequently  she  could  accomplish  all 
her  tasks  only  with  the  aid  of  her  daughters.  It  was 
necessary  to  perform  not  only  those  daily  domestic  tasks 
that  are  still  performed  by  the  present-day  housekeeper, 
but  also  many  others  from  which  modern  woman  has 
been  freed  by  the  industrial  development.  She  had  to 
spin,  weave  and  bleach,  cut  and  sew  all  the  garments, 
manufacture  tallow-candles  and  soap,  and  brew  the  beer. 
She  was  indeed  a  perfect  Cinderella  and  her  only  relaxa- 
tion was  going  to  church  on  Sunday.  Marriages  were 
contracted  only  within  the  same  social  circle.  A  severe 
and  ridiculous  caste  feeling  dominated  all  social  relations. 
The  daughters  were  educated  in  the  same  spirit  and  were 
maintained  in  close  domestic  confinement.  Their  educa- 
tion was  insignificant,  and  their  intellectuel  horizon  did 
not  extend  beyond  the  commonplace  domestic  relations. 
To  this  was  added  an  empty  superficial  formality,  that 
was  supposed  to  make  up  for  the  lack  of  intellect  and 
education,  making  woman's  life  a  sheer  treadmill.  The 
spirit  of  the  reformation  had  degenerated  into  the  worst 


94  The  Eighteenth  Century 

kind  of  pedantry;  the  most  natural  human  desires  and 
the  joy  of  life  were  crushed  beneath  a  mass  of  apparently 
dignified,  but  soul-killing  rules  of  behavior.  Emptiness 
and  narrow-mindedness  dominated  the  middle  class,  and 
the  lower  classes  lived  under  a  leaden  pressure  and  hi 
wretched  conditions. 

Then  came  the  French  revolution.  It  swept  away 
the  old  political  and  social  order  in  France,  and  also 
wafted  a  breath  of  its  spirit  to  Germany,  that  could  not 
long  be  resisted.  French  rule  especially  had  a  revolu- 
tionizing effect  upon  Germany;  it  swept  away  what  was 
old  and  decrepit  or,  at  least  hastened  its  destruction. 
Though  strenuous  efforts  were  made  during  the  reac- 
tionary period  after  1815  to  turn  the  course  of  develop- 
ment backward,  the  new  conceptions  had  become  too 
powerful  and  were  victorious  in  the  end. 

Guild  privileges,  lack  of  personal  freedom,  market 
privileges  and  proscription  were  gradually  laid  on  the 
shelf  in  the  more  advanced  states.  New  mechanical  in- 
ventions and  improvements,  especially  the  invention  of 
the  steam  engine,  and  the  resultant  cheapening  of  com- 
modities, provided  employment  for  the  masses,  including 
also  the  women.  Capitalistic  industry  was  born.  Fac- 
tories, railroads  and  steamboats  were  built,  mines  and 
foundries,  the  manufacture  of  glass  and  china,  the  textile 
industry  in  its  various  branches,  manufacture  of  tools 
and  machinery,  the  building  trades,  etc.,  rapidly  devel- 
oped. Universities  and  polytechnical  institutes  provided 
the  intellectual  forces  required  by  this  evolution.  The 
new  class  that  had  come  into  existence,  the  capitalist 
class,  the  bourgeoisie,  supported  by  all  those  who  favored 
progress,  insisted  upon  the  abolition  of  conditions  that 
had  become  untenable.  What  had  been  shaken  by  the 
revolution  from  below  during  the  movement  of  1848  and 
1849,  was  finally  abolished  b)'  the  revolution  from  above 
in  1866.  Political  unity,  according  to  the  desire  of  the 
bourgeoisie,  was  established,  and  this  was  followed  by 
the  final  overthrow  of  all  the  remaining  economic  and 
social  barriers.  Freedom  of  trade,  right  of  settlement 
and  emigration,  and  the  repeal  of  laws  restricting  mar- 
riage followed,  creating  those  conditions  that  capitalism 


Woman  in  the  Past  95 

needed  for  its  development.  Besides  the  workingman, 
woman  was  the  one  to  profit  chiefly  by  this  new  devel- 
opment, since  it  opened  up  to  her  new  avenues  and 
brought  her  greater  freedom. 

Even  before  the  new  order  had  been  introduced  by 
the  transformations  of  the  year  1866,  several  German 
states  had  removed  a  number  of  the  old,  rigid  barriers, 
which  caused  pedantic  reactionaries  to  predict  the  de- 
struction of  decency  and  morality.  In  1863  the  Bishop 
of  Mayence,  von  Ketteler,  lamented  that  "to  abolish  the 
existing  barriers  to  marriage  meant  the  destruction  of 
marriage  itself,  since  now  married  couples  were  enabled 
to  leave  each  other  at  will."  This  lament  contains  the 
unintentional  confession  that  in  modern  marriages  the 
moral  bonds  are  so  weak,  that  man  and  wife  can  be  kept 
together  only  by  force. 

Since  marriages  now  were  contracted  much  more  fre- 
quently than  before  this  period,  a  rapid  increase  of  popu- 
lation resulted.  This  fact,  and  the  fact  that  the  new, 
rapidly  developing  industrial  system  created  social  prob- 
lems that  had  not  previously  existed,  caused  the  fear  of 
over-population  to  spring  up  again,  as  it  did  in  former 
periods.  It  will  be  shown  what  this  fear  of  over-popula- 
tion amounts  to;  we  will  test  its  true  value. 


Unman  at  %  $Ire0pnt  iag. 

CHAPTER    VII. 
Woman  as  a  Sex  Being. 

i. — The  Sexual  Impulse. 

In  present-day  bourgeois  society  woman  holds  the 
second  place.  Man  leads;  she  follows.  The  present 
relation  is  diametrically  opposite  to  that  which  prevailed 
during  the  matriarchal  period.  The  evolution  from 
primitive  communism  to  the  rule  of  private  property  has 
primarily  brought  about  this  transformation. 

Plato  thanked  the  gods  for  eight  favors  they  had 
bestowed  upon  him.  The  first  was  that  he  had  been  born 
a  free-man  instead  of  a  slave,  and  the  second  was  that 
he  had  been  born  a  man  instead  of  a  woman.  A  similar 
thought  is  expressed  in  the  morning  prayer  of  the  Jews. 
They  pray:  "Be  thou  praised  God  our  Lord  and  Lord 
of  the  earth,  who  hast  not  created  me  a  woman."  In  the 
prayer  uttered  by  the  Jewish  women  the  corresponding 
passage  is  worded:  "Who  hast  created  me  according  to 
thy  will."  The  contrast  in  the  respective  positions  of 
the  sexes  could  not  be  more  forcibly  expressed  than  in 
this  utterance  of  Plato  and  the  prayer  of  the  Jews.  Man 
is  the  real  human  being  according  to  numerous  passages 
in  the  Bible,  and  both  the  English  and  French  languages 
furnish  proofs  of  this  conception,  since  the  word  "man" 
denotes  both  male  and  human  being.  When  speaking 
of  the  people  we  usually  think  of  men  only.  Woman  ivS 
a  factor  of  slight  importance,  and  man  is  her  master.  Men 
generally  consider  this  state  of  affairs  quite  proper,  and 
the  majority  of  women  still  accept  it  as  a  divine  ordi- 
nance. In  this  prevailing  conception  the  present  position 
of  woman  is  reflected. 

Regardless  of  the  question  whether  woman  is  op- 
pressed as  a  proletarian,  we  must  recognize  that  in  this 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  97 

world  of  private  property  she  is  oppressed  as  a  sex  being. 
On  all  sides  she  is  hemmed  in  by  restrictions  and  ob- 
stacles unknown  to  the  man.  Many  things  a  man  may 
do  she  is  prohibited  from  doing;  many  social  rights  and 
privileges  enjoyed  by  him,  are  considered  a  fault  or  a 
crime  in  her  case.  She  suffers  both  socially  and  as  a  sex 
being.  It  is  hard  to  say  in  which  respect  she  suffers 
more,  and  therefore  it  only  seems  natural  that  many 
women  wish  they  had  been  born  men  instead  of  having 
been  born  women. 

Of  all  the  natural  desires  that  are  a  part  of  human 
life,  beside  the  desire  for  food  in  order  to  live,  the  sexual 
desire  is  strongest.  The  impulse  of  race  preservation  is 
the  most  powerful  expression  of  the  "will  to  live."  This 
impulse  is  deeply  implanted  in  every  normally  developed 
human  being,  and  upon  attaining  maturity  its  satisfac- 
tion is  essential  to  physical  and  mental  welfare.  Luther 
was  right  when  he  said:  "He  who  would  thwart  the 
natural  impulse,  seeks  to  prevent  nature  from  being  na- 
ture, fire  from  burning,  water  from  moistening,  man  from 
eating  and  drinking  and  sleeping."  These  words  ought 
to  be  engraved  above  the  portals  of  our  churches  in 
which  the  "sinful  flesh"  is  so  vehemently  denounced.  No 
physician  or  physiologist  could  more  accurately  express 
the  necessity  of  satisfying  the  human  desire  for  love. 

If  the  human  organism  is  to  devlop  normally  and 
healthfully  it  is  essential  that  no  portion  of  the  human 
body  should  be  neglected,  and  that  no  natural  impulse 
should  be  denied  its  normal  satisfaction.  Every  organ 
should  perform  the  functions  which  it  has  been  destined 
by  nature  to  perform,  unless  the  whole  organism  is  to 
suffer.  The  laws  of  the  physical  development  of  man 
must  be  studied  and  observed  as  well  as  the  laws  of 
mental  development.  The  mental  activity  of  a  human 
being  depends  upon  the  physiological  condition  of  his 
organs.  Physical  and  mental  vigor  are  closely  linked. 
An  injury  to  one  has  a  detrimental  effect  upon  the  other. 
The  so-called  animal  instincts  are  not  inferior  to  mental 
requirements.  Both  are  products  of  the  same  organism 
and  are  mutually  interdependent.  This  applies  to  both 
man  and  woman.  Hence  it  follows  that  knowledge  of  the 


gS  Woman  as  a  Sex  Being 

nature  of  the  sexual  organs  is  as  necessary  as  that  of  all 
other  organs,  and  that  the  same  attention  should  be  bes- 
towed upon  their  care.  We  ought  to  know  that  organs  and 
impulses  implanted  in  every  human  being  constitute  a 
very  important  part  of  our  existence,  that  they  as  a 
matter  of  fact  predominate  during  certain  periods  of  life, 
and  that  therefore  they  must  not  be  objects  of  secrecy, 
false  shame  and  complete  ignorance.  It  follows  further- 
more that  among  both  men  and  women  knowledge  of 
the  physiology  and  anatomy  of  the  various  organs  and 
their  functions  should  be  as  widely  diffused  as  any  other 
branch  of  human  knowledge.  Endowed  with  an  exact 
knowledge  of  his  physical  nature,  man  would  take  a 
different  view  of  many  circumstances.  This  knowledge 
would  lead  to  the  removal  of  many  evils  that  society  at 
present  passes  by  silently,  in  solemn  awe,  but  that  never- 
theless claim  consideration  in  almost  every  family.  In 
regard  to  all  other  matters  knowledge  is  considered  a 
virtue;  it  is  regarded  as  the  loftiest,  most  desirable 
human  aim.  But  we  decry  konwledge  pertaining  to  those 
matters  that  are  most  closely  linked  with  our  own  "ego"' 
and  are  at  the  bottom  of  all  social  development. 

Kant  says :  "Man  and  woman  together  form  the  full 
and  complete  human  being;  one  sex  supplements  the 
other."  Schopenhauer  says:  "The  sexual  impulse  is  the 
most  complete  expression  of  the  will  to  live,  it  is  the 
concentration  of  will" ;  and  long  before  these  Buddha 
thus  expressed  himself:  "The  sexual  impulse  is  sharper 
than  the  prod  by  means  of  which  wild  elephants  are 
tamed ;  it  is  hotter  than  flames ;  it  is  like  an  arrow  driven 
into  the  soul  of  man." 

Such  being  the  intensity  of  sexual  impulse,  it  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at  that  with  both  men  and  women  sexual 
abstinence  frequently  leads  to  serious  disorders  of  the 
nervous  system,  and  in  some  cases  even  to  insanity  and 
suicide.  Of  course,  not  all  natures  manifest  an  equally 
strong  sexual  impulse.  It  can  also  be  restrained  to  a 
great  extent  by  education  and  self-control,  especially  by 
avoiding  the  stimulant  of  lewd  conversation  and  litera- 
ture, alcoholism,  etc.  It  is  held  that  the  sexual  impulse 
is  weaker  among  women  than  among  men,  and  that 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  99 

sometimes  women  even  feel  revulsion  against  sexual  con- 
tact. But  these  constitute  a  small  minority  whose  physi- 
ological and  psychological  dispositions  are  peculiarly 
constituted. 

We  may  say  that  the  manner  in  which  the  natural 
desires  of  the  sexes  are  expressed,  both  in  their  organic 
and  physical  development,  in  form  and  in  character, 
marks  the  degree  of  perfection  of  a  human  being,  be  it 
man  or  woman.  Each  sex  has  attained  its  own  highest 
development.  "Among  civilized  human  beings,"  says 
Klenke  in  his  essay  on  "Woman  as  a  Wife,"  "sexual  in- 
tercourse is  controlled  by  moial  principles  dictated  by 
common  sense.  But  nothing  could  ever  fully  subdue  the 
instinct  of  race  preservation,  implanted  by  nature  in  both 
sexes.  Wherever  healthy  male  or  female  individuals 
failed  to  fulfill  this  duty,  it  was  not  of  their  own  free  will, 
though  they  may  deceive  themselves  into  believing  it, 
but  was  a  result  of  social  hindrances  and  restrictions. 
These  hindrances  have  impeded  the  laws  of  nature,  have 
stunted  the  organs,  and  have  transformed  the  whole 
organism  into  an  atrophied  type  both  in  appearance  and 
in  character  and  have  caused  nervous  disorders  that 
bring  about  abnormal,  pathological  conditions  of  body 
and  mind.  The  man  becomes  effeminate;  the  woman 
becomes  masculine  in  form  and  character,  because  the 
sexual  contrast  has  not  been  realized ;  because  such  par- 
ticular human  being  remained  one-sided,  failing  to  attain 
his  own  integration,  the  full  height  of  his  existence. ' 
Dr.  Elizabeth  Blackwell  says  in  her  essay  on  "The  Moral 
Education  of  the  Young  in  Relation  to  Sex" :  "Sexual 
impulse  exists  as  an  inevitable  condition  of  life  and  the 
foundation  of  society.  It  is  the  greatest  power  in  human 
nature.  .  .  .  While  undeveloped  it  is  not  an  object  of 
the  thoughts,  but  it  remains  nevertheless  the  central 
force  of  life.  This  inevitable  impulse  is  the  natural 
guardian  against  all  possibility  of  destruction."*  Prac- 
tical Luther  has  positive  advice  to  offer.  He  advises : 
"Let  him  who  has  no  desire  for  chastity  look  about  him 

*E.  Blackwell,  "Essays  in  Medical  Sociology."     Page  i?7-    Lon- 
don, 1906. 


ioo  Woman  as  a  Sex  Being 

for  work  and  turn  to  matrimony;  a  boy  at  the  latest 
when  he  is  twenty,  a  girl  when  she  is  fifteen  or  eighteen 
years  of  age.  Then  they  are  healthy  and  skillful  and 
trust  to  God  to  provide  for  them  and  their  children.  God 
gives  them  the  children  and  he  will  provide  for  them." 
Unfortunately  our  social  conditions  make  it  impossible 
to  follow  Luther's  good  advice,  and  neither  the  Christian 
state  nor  Christian  society  believes  in  trusting  to  God 
to  provide  for  the  children. 

Science,  the  views  of  the  philosophers,  and  Luther's 
sound  common  sense,  all  are  agreed  that  man  is  entitled 
to  normal  satisfaction  of  those  desires  that  are  part  and 
parcel  of  his  very  life.  If  social  institutions  or  prejudices 
make  this  impossible,  his  development  is  hampered 
thereby.  The  results  are  well  known  to  our  physicians, 
and  can  be  met  with  in  hospitals,  insane  asylums,  prisons, 
and  in  thousands  of  disrupted  families.  In  a  book  pub- 
lished in  Leipsic  we  find  the  following  thought  expressed : 
''Sexual  impulse  is  neither  moral  nor  immoral ;  it  is 
simply  natural  like  hunger  and  thirst.  Nature  knows 
nothing  of  morality."  But  organized  society  is  very  far 
from  recognizing  the  truth  of  this  sentence. 

2. — Celibacy  and  the  Frequency  of  Suicide. 

Among  physicians  and  physiologists  it  is  generally 
assumed  that  even  an  imperfect  marriage  is  preferable 
to  celibacy,  and  this  assumption  is  substantiated  by  ex- 
perience. It  is  a  striking  fact  that  the  rate  of  mortality 
is  lower  among  married  than  among  unmarried  people 
(comparing  about  1,000  married  persons  30  years  old 
with  1,000  unmarried  persons  of  the  same  age).  The 
difference  is  especially  marked  in  the  case  of  men.  Dur- 
ing some  periods  of  life  the  rate  of  mortality  among 
unmarried  men  is  almost  twice  as  great  as  that  among 
married  men.  Mortality  is  likewise  very  great  among 
men  who  have  become  widowers  while  still  young.* 

It  is  furthermore  claimed  that  the  number  of  suicides 
are  increased  by  unsound  sexual  relations.  In  all  coun- 
tries suicides  are  much  more  frequent  among  men  than 


*Dr.  G.  Schnapper-Arndt :    "Social  Statistics,"  Leipsic,  1908. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  101 

among  women.     The  following  table  shows  the  ratio  in 
various  European  countries : 

Among  100,000  Ratio  of 

— suicides. —  female  to 

During  the  years.     Male.  Female,  male  suicides. 

Germany 1899—1902         33.0         8.4  25.5 

Austria    ...    1898 — 1901         25.4         7.0  27.6 

Switzerland    .  .  .    1896 — 1903         33.3         6.4  19.2 

Italy   1893 — 1901           9.8         2.4  24.5 

France 1888—1892         35.5         9.7  27.3 

Netherlands   . .  .    1901 — 1902           9.3         3.0  32.3 

England 1891—1900         13.7         4.4  32.1 

Scotland    1891 — 1900          9.0        3.2  35.6 

Ireland 1901                 2.3         1.2  52.2 

Norway 1891 — 1900         10.0        2.5  25. 

Sweden    1891 — 1900        21.1         8.6  40.8 

Finland   1891 — 1900           7.8         1.8  21.1 

European  Russia  1885 — 1894          4.9         1.6  32.7 

During  the  years  1898  to  1907  we  find  the  following 
ratio  of  suicides  in  the  German  Empire : 

Year.     Total.  Male.   Female.  Year.     Total.  Male.    Female. 

1898..  10,835  8.544     2,291  1902..  12,336  9,765     2,571 

1899..  10,761  8,460     2,301  1904..  12,468  9,704     2,764 

1900..  11,393  8,987    2,406  1907..  12,777  9,753     3,024 

For  each  100  male  suicides  there  were  female  suicides : 
During  1898,  26.8;  during  1899,  27.2;  during  1900,  26.8; 
during  1904,  28.5  ;  during  1907,  31.  But  during  the  period 
of  life  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  thirtieth  year,  the  rate 
of  suicide  is  higher  among  women  than  among  men. 

The  following  table  shows  the  ratio  between  the  I5th 
and  2Oth,  and  between  the  2ist  and  3Oth  year: 

I5th  to  20th  year.      2ist  to  30th  year. 
During  the  years.     Male.      Female.      Male.      Female. 

Prussia 1896 — 1900  5.3  10.7  16.  20.2 

Denmark    ...1896 — 1900  4.6  8.3  12.4  14.8 

Switzerland  .1884 — 1899  3.3  6.7  16.1  21. 

France 1887 — 1891  3.5  8.2  10.9  14.* 


*H.  Krose,  "Causes  of  the  Frequency  of  Suicide."     Freiburg, 
1006. 


io2  Woman  as  a  Sex  Being 

The  following-  table  shows  the  ratio  of  male  and 
female  suicides  in  Saxony  between  the  21  st  and  3<Dth 
year: 

Men.  Women. 

1854—1868 14.95  18.64 

1868—1880 14.71  18.79 

1881—1888 15.3  22.3 

We  find  an  increased  number  of  suicides  among 
widowed  and  divorced  persons  also.  In  Saxony  among 
divorced  men  the  rate  of  suicide  is  seven  times%as  high, 
among  divorced  women  three  times  as  high,  as  the  aver- 
age rate  of  suicide  among  men  and  women.  Also  suicide 
is  more  frequent  among  those  widowed  or  divorced  men 
and  women  who  are  childless.  Among  the  unmarried 
women  who  are  driven  to  suicide  between  the  2ist  and 
3oth  year,  there  are  many  who  have  been  betrayed  in 
love  or  have  "gone  wrong."  Statistics  show  that  an 
increase  of  illegal  births  is  generally  accompanied  by  an 
increase  of  female  suicides.  The  rate  of  female  suicides 
between  the  i6th  and  21  st  year  is  exceptionally  high, 
which  also  points  to  the  conclusion  that  ungratified 
sexual  impulse,  love-sorrow,  secret  pregnancy  or  the 
deceit  of  men  constitute  frequent  causes. 

In  regard  to  the  position  of  woman  as  a  sex  being,  we 
find  the  following  thought  expressed  by  Professor  Krafft- 
Ebing* :  "One  source  of  lunacy  among  women  that 
should  not  be  underrated,  is  their  social  position.  Woman 
is  by  nature  more  desirous  of  love  than  man,  at  least  in 
the  ideal  sense,  and  she  has  no  honorable  means  of  grati- 
fying this  desire  except  marriage  (Mandsley).  Marriage 
is,  furthermore,  her  only  means  of  livelihood.  Through 
countless  generations  her  character  has  been  developed 
in  this  direction.  (Even  the  little  girl  is  mother  to  her 
doll.  Modern  life  with  its  increased  demands  is  con- 
stantly diminishing  the  prospects  of  satisfaction  through 
marriage.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  upper  classes 
where  marriages  are  contracted  less  frequently  and  later 
in  life. 

"While  man  owing  to  his  greater  physical  and  intel- 
lectual force  and  his  free  social  position,  readily  obtains 

*Text-book  of  Psychiatry— Stuttgart  1883. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  103 

satisfaction  of  his  sexual  impulse,  or  at  least  finds  an 
equivalent  in  some  life's  work  that  requires  all  his 
strength,  these  paths  are  barred  to  the  unmarried  women 
of  the  upper  classes.  This  leads,  consciously  or  uncon- 
sciously, to  dissatisfaction  with  one's  self  and  the  world 
and  to  morbid  brooding.  For  some  time  compensation 
is  sought  in  religion,  but  in  vain.  The  religious  fana- 
ticism, with  or  without  masturbation,  leads  to  a  number 
of  nervous  disorders  that  frequently  culminate  in  hysteria 
or  insanity.  This  explains  the  fact  that  unmarried 
women  fall  victims  to  insanity  most  frequently  between 
the  25th  and  35th  year  of  life.  It  is  that  period  when 
the  bloom  of  youth  fades  and  hope  fades  with  it;  while 
among  men  insanity  most  frequently  occurs  between  the 
35th  and  5Oth  year,  the  period  during  which  the  struggle 
for  existence  makes  its  greatest  demands  upon  their 
strength. 

"It  is  not  a  mere  coincidence  that  with  the  decline  in 
the  marriage  rate  the  question  of  the  emancipation  of 
women  is  becoming  more  and  more  urgent.  I  regard  it 
as  a  signal  of  distress  showing  that  woman's  position  in 
modern  society  is  steadily  becoming  more  unbearable. 
It  is  a  just  demand  that  woman  should  be  given  an 
equivalent  for  that  which  has  been  assigned  to  her  by 
nature  and  of  which  she  is  being  deprived  by  modern 
social  conditions." 

In  speaking  of  the  effect  of  ungratified  sexual  impulse 
on  unmarried  women,  Dr.  H.  Ploss  says:  "It  is  a  note- 
worthy fact,  of  interest  not  only  to  the  physician  but  to 
the  anthropologist  as  well,  that  an  infallible  remedy 
exists  whereby  the  process  of  fading  bloom,  so  manifest 
in  old  maids,  cannot  only  be  arrested,  but  the  already 
vanished  bloom  of  youth  can  even  be  reinstated,  partly 
at  least,  if  not  in  its  entire  charm.  Unfortunately  our 
social  conditions  rarely  permit  its  application.  This 
remedy  is  a  regular,  orderly,  sexual  intercourse.  We 
can  often  observe  that  when  an  elderly  girl  is  still  for- 
tunate enough  to  attain  matrimony,  a  marked  change  in 
her  appearance  takes  place  shortly  after  her  marriage. 
Her  shape  obtains  its  former  roundness,  the  roses  return 
to  her-  cheeks,  and  her  eyes  regain  their  former  bright- 


104  Modern  Marriage 

ness.  Marriage  then  is  a  real  fountain  of  youth  to  the 
female  sex.  Thus  nature  has  its  fixed  laws  that  inexor- 
ably demand  obedience,  and  every  unnatural  mode  of 
life,  every  attempt  to  adapt  the  organism  to  conditions 
of  life  that  are  not  in  keeping  with  the  laws  of  nature, 
inevitably  leaves  marked  traces  of  degeneration.  This  is 
true  of  both  the  animal  and  the  human  organism." 

The  question  now  presents  itself :  Does  society  fulfill 
the  demands  for  a  rational  mode  of  life,  especially  in  the 
woman's  case?  If  it  does  not,  we  are  confronted  by  a 
second  question :  Can  society  fulfill  them  ?  If  this  ques- 
tion also  must  be  answered  in  the  negative,  a  third  ques- 
tion ensues:  How  can  they  be  fulfilled? 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

MODERN  MARRIAGE. 

i. — Marriage  as  a  Profession. 

"Marriage  and  the  family  are  the  foundations  of  the 
state.  Whoever,  therefore,  attacks  marriage  and  the 
family,  is  attacking  society  and  the  state  and  undermin- 
ing both."  Thus  exclaim  the  defenders  of  the  present 
order.  Monogamic  marriage  as  has  been  sufficiently 
shown,  is  the  outcome  of  the  system  of  gain  and  prop- 
erty that  has  been  established  by  bourgeois  society,  and 
therefore  undoubtedly  forms  one  of  its  basic  principles. 
But  whether  it  is  adapted  to  natural  needs  and  to  a 
healthy  development  of  human  society  is  a  different 
question.  We  will  show  that  this  marriage,  which  depends 
upon  the  bourgeois  system  of  property,  is  a  more  or  less 
forced  relation,  having  many  disadvantages,  and  fre- 
quently fulfilling  its  purpose  only  insufficiently  or  not 
at  all.  We  will,  furthermore,  show  that  it  is  a  social 
institution  which  is  and  remains  inattainable  to  millions 
of  persons,  instead  of  being  a  free  union  founded  on  love, 
the  only  union  suited  to  nature's  purposes. 

John  Stuart  Mills  says  in  regard  to  modern  mar- 
riage: "Marriage  is  the  only  real  bondage  recognized 
by  law."  According  to  Kant's  conception  man  and 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  105 

woman  together  constitute  the  perfect  human  being. 
Upon  a  normal  union  of  the  sexes  the  healthy  develop- 
ment of  mankind  depends.  Satisfaction  of  the  sexual 
impulse  is  essential  to  the  sound  physical  and  mental 
development  of  both  man  and  woman.  But  man  has 
gone  beyond  the  animal  stage,  and  so  is  not  contented 
by  the  mere  physical  satisfaction  of  his  sexual  impulse. 
He  requires  intellectual  attraction  as  well,  and  the  exist- 
ence of  a  certain  harmony  between  himself  and  the  per- 
son with  whom  he  enters  into  union.  Where  such  intel- 
lectual harmony  fails  to  exist,  the  sexual  intercourse  is 
purely  mechanical  and  thereby  becomes  immoral.  Men 
and  women  of  refinement  demand  a  mutual  attraction 
that  extends  beyond  their  sexual  relations,  and  that  shall 
have  an  ennobling  effect  upon  the  new  beings  which 
may  spring  from  their  union.51'  The  fact  that  such  a 
standard  of  ideals  fails  to  exist  in  countless 'present-day 
marriages  caused  Varnhagen  von  Ense  to  write:  "What- 
ever we  saw  about  us  both  of  marriages  already  con- 
tracted, and  of  marriages  about  to  be  contracted,  was  not 
likely  to  implant  in  us  a  good  opinion  of  such  unions. 
On  the  contrary;  the  entire  institution  which  is  supposed 
to  be  founded  on  mutual  love  and  respect  and  is  instead 
founded  on  anything  but  that,  seemed  coarse  and  despic- 
able to  us,  and  we  fully  agreed  with  Friedrich  Schlegel, 
whose  opinion  on  this  subject  we  found  expressed  in  the 
fragments  of  'Antheneum' :  Almost  all  marriages  are 
concubinages ;  they  are  at  best  remote  approaches  to  the 
true  marriage,  which  should  be  a  blending  of  two  persons 
into  one."  This  is  quite  in  keeping  with  the  views  of 
Kant. 

The  joy  in  having  progeny  and  the  responsibility 
toward  same  makes  the  relation  of  love  existing  between 
two  persons  one  of  longer  duration.  A  couple  desirous 


*"The  sentiments  and  feelings  with  which  husband  and  wife 
approach  one  another  undoubtedly  have  a  decisive  influence  upon  the 
effects  of  sexual  intercourse  and  transmit  certain  traits  of  character 
upon  the  being  that  is  coming  into  existence."  Dr.  Elizabeth  Black- 
well.  "The  Moral  Education  of  the  Young  in  Relation  to  Sex." — See 
also  Goethe's  "Affinity,"  where  he  distinctly  shows  the  effects  of  the 
feelings  that  prompt  two  human  beings  to  intimate  intercourse. 


io6  Modern  Marriage 

of  entering  marriage  should  therefore  carefully  consider 
whether  their  respective  traits  of  character  are  suited  to 
their  union.  The  answer  to  this  grave  question  ought 
to  be  unbiased.  But  that  is  only  possible  by  the  exclu- 
sion of  every  other  interest  that  has  no  direct  bearing 
on  the  purpose  of  the  union,  satisfaction  of  the  sexual 
impulse  and  propagation  of  one's  own  personality  by 
means  of  propagation  of  the  race,  guided  by  a  certain 
measure  of  insight  that  controls  blind  passion.  As  these 
conditions  fail  to  be  observed  in  a  tremendous  number 
of  cases  in  present-day  society,  it  is  evident  that  modern 
marriage  frequently  fails  to  fulfill  its  true  object  and  that 
we  are  not  justified  in  regarding  it  as  an  ideal  institution. 

How  many  marriages  are  contracted  on  an  entirely 
different  basis  than  the  one  described  above  cannot  be 
demonstrated.  The  parties  concerned  like  to  have  their 
marriage  appear  different  from  what  it  really  is.  Here 
a  condition  of  hypocrisy  presents  itself,  such  as  no 
previous  social  period  has  known  in  a  similar  degree. 
The  state,  the  political  representative  of  society,  has  no 
inclination  to  institute  investigations  that  would  cast  an 
unfavorable  light  upon  society.  The  state  itself  marries 
its  officials  and  servants  according  to  maxims  that  can- 
not be  measured  by  the  standard  that  should  constitute 
the  foundation  of  true  marriage. 

2.— Decline  of  the  Birthrate. 

Marriage,  in  order  to  realize  the  purpose  of  nature, 
should  be  a  union  founded  on  mutual  love.  But  this  motive 
is  rarely  met  with  unalloyed  under  present  conditions: 
To  the  great  majority  of  women,  marriage  is  a  means  of 
livelihood  that  they  must  obtain  at  any  cost.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  great  many  men  regard  marriage  from  a 
purely  commercial  point  of  view,  weighing  and  consider- 
ing its  material  advantages  and  disadvantages.  Even 
those  marriages  that  are  not  based  on  selfish,  sordid 
motives,  are  frequently  marred  and  broken  up  by  the 
harsh  realities  of  life.  Only  rarely  those  hopes  are  real- 
ized that  were  held  by  a  man  and  woman  prior  to  their 
marriage.  That  is  only  natural.  For  in  order  to  lead  a 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  107 

contented  married  life  not  only  mutual  love  and  respect 
are  required,  but  economic  security  as  well;  that  is,  a 
certain  measure  of  the  necessities  and  comforts  of  life 
in  order  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  man  and  wife  and  their 
children.  Material  cares  and  the  cruel  struggle  for  exist- 
ence are  destructive  to  marital  contentment  and  happi- 
ness. But  these  material  cares  increase  with  the  increas- 
ing number  of  offspring ;  in  other  words,  the  better  mar- 
riage fulfills  its  natural  object,  the  greater  become  these 
cares.  The  peasant,  for  instance,  takes  pleasure  in  every 
new  calf  that  his  cow  brings  forth,  he  cheerfully  counts 
his  suckling  pigs  and  relates  the  good  news  of  their 
arrival  to  his  neighbors.  But  he  looks  somber  when  a 
new  baby  is  added  to  the  number  of  children  that  he 
feels  able  to  support  without  care — not  a  large  number, 
forsooth — and  he  looks  doubly  somber  if  the  newly-born 
babe  has  the  ill  fortune  of  being  a  girl. 

We  may  say  then  that  both  marriages  and  births  are 
controlled  by  economic  conditions.  This  is  especially 
evident  in  France  where  agriculture  is  carried  on  by  a 
division  of  the  land  into  small  lots,  the  products  of  which 
are  not  sufficient  to  support  a  large  family.  The  famous, 
or  notorious,  French  system  of  having  no  more  than  two 
children,  a  system  that  has  developed  into  a  social  insti- 
tution in  France,  is  the  result.  In  many  provinces  the 
population  is  accordingly  almost  stationary,  while  in 
others  there  has  been  a  marked  decline.  The  same  results 
that  the  methods  of  farming  have  produced  in  the  rural 
districts,  have  been  produced  in  the  cities  by  industry. 
In  fact,  the  birthrate  is  declining  even  more  rapidly  in 
the  cities. 

The  number  of  births  is  constantly  decreasing  in 
France,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  number  of  marriages 
is  increasing.  This  is  true  not  only  of  France,  but  of  the 
majority  of  civilized  countries.  This  fact  points  to  a 
development  produced  by  our  social  conditions  that 
should  make  the  ruling  classes  think.  In  1881,  937,057 
children  were  born  in  France;  in  1906,  806,847,  and  in 
1907,  only  773,969.  In  1907,  163,088  fewer  children  were 
born  than  in  1881.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the  num- 
ber of  illegitimate  births  did  not  decrease.  There  were 


io8  Modern  Marriage 

70,079  of  these  in  1881 ;  during  the  period  from  1881  to 
1890  they  attained  their  highest  figure,  75,754,  and  in 
1906  there  still  were  70,866.  The  decline  of  the  birthrate 
then  was  confined  entirely  to  the  legitimate  births.  Dur- 
ing the  entire  century  a  decline  of  the  birthrate  was 
noticeable.  The  following  table  shows  the  number  of 
births  for  every  thousand  inhabitants  of  France  during 
more  than  a  century : 

1801 — i8io.-332  1841 — 1850. .273  1891 — 1900. .221 

1811 — 1820.. 316  1851 — 1860.. 262  1905 206 

1821 — 1830.. 308  1861 — 1870.  .261  1906 206 

1831 — 1840.  .290  1881 — 1890.. 239  1907 197 

This  represents  a  decline  of  135  births  for  every  thou- 
sand inhabitants  from  1801  to  1907.  It  is  natural  that 
this  symptom  is  a  cause  of  much  concern  to  French 
statesmen  and  economists.  But  the  problem  is  not  con- 
fined to  France.  Since  a  long  time  the  same  phenomenon 
may  be  observed  in  Germany,  especially  in  Saxony, 
where  the  decline  of  the  birthrate  has  been  even  more 
rapid.  In  Germany  there  were  the  following  number  of 
births  for  every  thousand  inhabitants: 

1875 423  1890 370  1905 340 

1880 391  1895 373  1906 341 

1885 385  1900 368  1907 332 

The  majority  of  the  other  European  countries  present 
a  similar  condition,  as  the  following  table  shows : 

1871        1881        1891        1901 
to  to          to          to 

1880        1890       1900        1905        1007 

England  &  Wales.  .  .35.4  32.5  29.9  28.1  26.3  $ 

Scotland    34.9  32.3  30.2  28.9  27.  « 

Ireland 26.5  23.4  23.  23.2  23.2  3 

Sweden 30.5  29.1  27.2  26.1  25.5  ^ 

Italy 36.9  37.8  34.9  32.6  31.5  g 

Austria    39.  37.9  37.1  35.8  35.  ° 

Hungary 44.3  44.0  40.6  37.2  36.  | 

Belgium 32.3  30.2  39.  27.7  25.72; 

Switzerland    30.8  28.1  28.1  28.1  26.8  §" 

Netherlands   36.2  34.2  32.5  31.5  30.  Z 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day 


109 


The  decline  of  the  birthrate  then  is  a  general  one,  and 
though  France  and  Ireland  show  the  lowest  figures,  the 
decline  is  most  rapid  in  England,  Germany  and  Scotland. 
We  meet  with  the  same  phenomenon  in  the  United  States 
and  Australia.  The  fact  presents  itself  still  more  strik- 
ingly if  we  proceed  to  compare  the  number  of  births  with 
the  number  of  married  women  between  the  I5th  and 
49th  year  of  age : 

LEGITIMATE     CHILDREN     BORN     TO     1,000     MARRIED 

WOMEN  BETWEEN  THE  FIFTEENTH  AND 

FORTY-NINTH  YEAR. 


DECADES 

1 

. 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Denmark 

Norway 

Sweden 

Finland 

Austria 

Hungary 

Switzerland 

1876  to  1885  

25O 

271 

750 

244 

?6? 

240 

2*59 

246 

234 

239 

1886  to  1895 

250 

24C 

2^Q 

271 

f 

246 

1896  to  1905 

2Qt, 

275 

264 

217 

246 

2IQ 

242 

216 

225 

OJ 

DECADES 

id 

' 

.2 

K 

j 

il  <n 

""2 

| 

8 

i  S 

g 

t 

g 

^1 

T3 

£ 

bo 

a 

es 

^> 

O 

£ 

1 

to 

& 

^ 

PQ 

£ 

S 

1876  to  1885  

->68 

277, 

776 

767 

088 

766 

2Q7, 

264 

167 

?/l8 

1886  to  1895  

?58 

767. 

2SQ 

248 

786 

736 

150 

249 

1896  to  1905  

24^ 

2SO 

2SQ 

216 

76? 

272 

213 

172 

232 

The  above  enumerated  facts  go  to  prove  that  the  birth 
of  a  human  being,  "God's  image,"  as  religious  persons 
say,  is,  on  an  average,  estimated  below  the  value  of  a 
newly-born  domestic  animal. 

In  many  respects  our  views  differ  but  slightly  from 
those  of  barbarian  people.  Among  the  latter,  newly-born 
children  were  often  killed.  This  fate  especially  befell 
the  girls.  Among  some  living  savages  the  same  custom 
still  prevails.  We  do  not  kill  the  girls ;  we  are  too  civil- 
ized for  that,  but  frequently  we  treat  them  as  paria 
Man,  being  the  stronger,  everywhere  represses  woman  in 
the  struggle  for  existence,  and  if  she  still  persists  in  the 
struggle,  she  is  often  persecuted  by  the  stronger  sex  as 


no  Modern  Marriage 

an  undesirable  competitor.  Men  of  the  upper  classes  are 
especially  bitter  against  female  competition.  Among 
workingmen  the  demand  to  exclude  women  from  the 
trades  is  voiced  only  rarely.  When  a  resolution  formu- 
lating such  a  demand  was  presented  at  a  congress  of 
French  workingmen  in  1876,  it  was  voted  down  by  a 
large  majority.  Since  that  time  the  conviction  that  the 
working  woman  is  a  fellow  being  entitled  to  equal  rights 
and  privileges,  has  grown  among  the  class-conscious 
workingmen  of  all  countries.  The  resolutions  passed  by 
international  workingmen's  congresses  prove  this.  The 
class-conscious  workingman  knows  that  present  indus- 
trial conditions  compel  woman  to  enter  into  competition 
with  man.  He  also  knows,  that  an  attempt  to  exclude 
woman  from  industry  would  be  as  futile  as  an  attempt 
to  forbid  the  use  of  machinery.  Therefore  he  endeavors 
to  instruct  woman  in  regard  to  her  position  in  society  and 
to  enlist  her  aid  in  the  struggle  for  freedom  of  the  prole- 
tariat against  capitalism. 

3. — Mercenary  Marriage  and  the  Matrimonial  Market. 

Modern  society  has  undoubtedly  advanced  beyond 
any  previous  stage  of  development,  but  our  conceptions 
concerning  the  relation  of  the  sexes  has  in  many  respects 
remained  unchanged.  In  1876  Prof.  L.  v.  Stein  published 
a  book  on  "Woman  in  the  Field  of  Political  Economy," 
that  is  not  suited  to  its  title,  since  it  merely  draws  a  very 
poetically  tinted  picture  of  marriage.  But  this  picture 
clearly  shows  the  submissive  position  of  woman  in  her 
relation  to  the  "lion,"  man.  Stein  writes:  "Man  desires 
a  being  who  not  only  loves  him  but  also  understands  him. 
He  seeks  one  who  is  not  only  devoted  to  him,  but  whose 
soft  hand  smoothes  the  wrinkles  on  his  forehead;  who 
brings  into  his  life  peace,  calm,  order,  gentle  self-control, 
and  all  the  many  little  comforts  of  life  to  which  he 
returns  daily.  He  needs  some  one  to  enhance  all  these 
things  with  the  inexpressible  charm  of  womanliness,  im- 
parting warmth  and  joy  to  his  home." 

Beneath  this  apparent  praise  of  woman  lurks  her 
degradation  and  the  egotism  of  man.  The  professor 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  in 

depicts  woman  as  a  dainty  creature,  endowed  neverthe- 
less with  the  needful  knowledge  of  arithmetic  to  keep  the 
household  accounts  well  balanced,  caressing  like  a  gentle 
spring  breeze  the  master  of  the  house,  the  ruling  lion, 
and  with  her  soft  hand  smoothing  the  wrinkles  from  his 
forehead,  that  perhaps  have  appeared  there  from  brood- 
ing over  his  own  stupidity.  The  professor  depicts  woman 
and  marriage  such  as  barely  one  among  a  hundred 
actually  exist. 

About  the  many  thousand  unhappy  marriages,  about 
the  great  number  of  women  to  whom  it  is  never  given 
to  attain  marriage,  and  about  the  millions  of  women  who 
must  slave  beside  their  husbands  from  morning  till  night 
to  earn  their  daily  bread,  he  seems  to  see  and  know  noth- 
ing whatever.  All  these  marriages  are  stripped  of  poetry 
by  the  harsh  reality  of  life,  more  quickly  than  a  careless 
hand  strips  the  colored  dust  from  a  butterfly's  wing.  One 
glance  at  those  countless  women  sufferers  would  have 
greatly  marred  the  professor's  poetically  tinted  picture. 
The  women  he  observes  only  constitute  a  small  minority, 
and  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  represent  an  advanced 
type. 

There  is  a  frequently  quoted  saying,  that  the  degree 
of  civilization  attained  by  a  nation  may  be  measured  by 
the  position  of  its  women.  We  uphold  the  justice  of  this 
saying.  But  upon  applying  this  standard  we  find  that 
our  highly  lauded  civilization  does  not  amount  to  much. 
In  his  book  on  the  "Subjection  of  Women" — the  title 
shows  the  conception  of  the  position  of  woman  held  by 
the  author — John  Stuart  Millafsays:  "Men  have  become 
more  domesticated.  Increasing  civilization  has  put  more 
fetters  on  man  in  regard  to  woman."  That  is  true  to 
some  extent  wherever  an  honest  marriage  relation  exists 
between  husband  and  wife.  But  to  a  considerably  large 
minority  it  does  not  apply.  Intelligent  men  will  recog- 
nize, that  it  is  to  their  own  advantage,  if  women  are  drawn 
out  into  the  world  from  their  narrow  domestic  sphere, 
and  are  given  an  opportunity  to  become  acquainted  with 
the  great  problems  of  the  day.  The  "fetters"  that  are 


ii2  Modern  Marriage 

thereby  placed  on  him,  are  not  hard  to  bear.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  question  arises  whether  modern  life  has 
not  brought  new  factors  into  the  matrimonial  relation 
that  are  more  apt  to  destroy  marriage  than  any  pre- 
viously known. 

Marriage  has  become  an  object  of  material  calcula- 
tion in  a  marked  degree.  The  man  who  wishes  to  marry, 
in  seeking  to  obtain  a  wife,  also  seeks  to  obtain  property. 
That  was  the  chief  reason  why  daughters,  who  were  at 
first  excluded  from  the  right  of  inheritance  when  the 
patriarchal  system  came  into  power,  were  at  an  early 
period  reinstated  to  this  right.  But  never  before  was 
the  marriage  market  as  openly  and  cynically  displayed 
as  to-day ;  never  before  was  marriage  regarded  in  the 
same  degree  as  a  simple  speculation,  a  mere  financial 
transaction.  At  present  match-making  is  frequently 
carried  on  so  shamelessly,  that  the  often-repeated  phrase 
about  the  "sanctity  of  marriage"  becomes  a  farce.  Still, 
for  this  fact,  as  for  all  others,  an  explanation  can  be 
found.  At  no  previous  time  was  it  so  difficult  for  the 
great  majority  of  people  to  accumulate  a  modest  fortune, 
as  it  is  at  present,  and  at  no  previous  time  was  the  striv- 
ing for  a  decent  livelihood  and  the  enjoyment  of  life  so 
general.  Those  who  do  not  attain  the  aim  they  have  set  for 
themselves  feel  their  disappointment  all  the  more  keenly, 
because  all  believe  to  have  the  same  right  to  enjoyment. 
No  formal  difference  of  class  or  caste  exists.  Everyone 
hopes  to  attain  some  aim  that  seems  attainable  in  accord- 
ance with  his  station  in  life.  But  many  are  called  and 
few  are  chosen.  In  order  that  one  may  live  in  comfort, 
twenty  others  must  live  in  want;  and  in  order  that  one 
may  revel  in  luxury,  hundreds  or  thousands  must  dwell 
in  poverty.  But  everyone  is  eager  to  be  one  of  the 
favored  few,  and  accordingly  resorts  to  all  means  that 
are  likely  to  lead  him  to  his  goal.  One  of  the  simplest 
and  most  accessible  means  of  attaining  a  privileged  social 
position  is  a  mercenary  marriage.  In  this  way  the  desire 
for  money,  on  the  one  side,  and  the  desire  for  social  rank 
and  title',  on  the  other,  obtain  mutual  satisfaction  among 
the  upper  classes  of  society.  Here  marriage  is  degraded 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  113 

to  a  business  transaction.  It  becomes  a  conventional 
union  that  both  sides  respect  outwardly,  while  secretly 
both  all  too  often  follow  their  own  inclinations.* 

In  every  large  city  there  are  certain  places  where  upon 
definite  days  members  of  the  upper  classes  come  together, 
chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  match-making.  Rightly  have 
these  reunions  been  called  the  "matrimonial  market" ; 
for  just  as  on  the  stock  market,  speculation  and  barter 
dominate,  and  not  infrequently  fraud  and  deception  enter 
into  the  dealings.  Here  we  find  officers  of  the  army,  over 
head  and  ears  in  debt,  but  possessing  some  ancient  title 
of  nobility;  roues,  weakened  by  a  life  of  debauchery, 
who  seek  a  wife  to  nurse  them  and  hope  to  mend  their 
shattered  health  in  marriage ;  manufacturers,  merchants 
and  bankers,  who  are  at  the  verge  of  bankruptcy,  some- 
times at  the  verge  of  imprisonment  and  who  wish  to  be 
saved,  and  public  officials  who  have  prospects  of  promo- 
tion, but  are  in  need  of  money ;  here  they  come  as  cus- 
tomers and  conclude  the  marriage  bargain.  In  these 
marriages  it  frequently  is  deemed  quite  immaterial 
whether  the  future  wife  is  young  or  old,  pretty  or  ugly, 
well-built  or  deformed,  educated  or  ignorant,  pious  or 


*For  the  sake  of  completeness  we  must  also  mention  marriage 
for  political  reasons  as  contracted  in  the  highest  circles.  In  these 
marriages  the  right  is  also  silently  conceded  to  the  man  to  follow 
his  own  inclinations  outside  of  his  marriage.  There  was  a  time  when 
rulers  considered  it  good  form,  a  sort  of  royal  attribute,  to  have  at 
least  one  mistress.  Thus,  according  to  Sherr,  King  Frederick  Wil- 
liam I.  of  Prussia,  otherwise  noted  for  his  temperate  life,  maintained 
an  intimate  relation  with  the  wife  of  a  general.  It  is  well  known 
that  King  August  of  Poland  and  Saxony  had  almost  300  illegitimate 
children,  and  that  King  Victor  Emanuei  of  Italy  left  32  illegitimate 
children.  In  the  picturesquely  situated  little  capital  of  a  German 
principality  there  still  stood  not  many  years  ago  about  a  dozen 
beautiful  villas  that  had  been  erected  by  the  ruler  for  his  abdicated 
mistresses.  One  might  write  volumes  on  this  subject;  in  fact,  an 
extensive  collection  of  books  exists  that  deal  mainly  with  these 
piquant  occurrences.  In  view  of  these  facts  it  is  indeed  very  neces- 
sary that  svcophantical  historians  should  strive  to  present  the  various 
fathers  and  mothers  of  their  countries  as  models  of  domestic  virtue, 
as  faithful  husbands  and  devoted  mothers.  The  augurs  are  not  yet 
extinct,  they  fatten,  as  in  the  days  of  Rome,  upon  the  ignorance  of 
the  masses. 


ii4  Modern  Marriage 

frivolous,  a  Christian  or  a  Jewess,  provided  that  she  has 
money.  Money  redeems  all  faults  and  compensates  for 
the  lack  of  anything  else.  According  to  the  German  law, 
procurers  are  severely  punished  by  imprisonment.  But 
when  parents  or  guardians  barter  their  children  or  rela- 
tives to  some  unloved  man  or  woman  for  life,  for  the 
sake  of  wealth,  social  position  or  some  other  advantage, 
no  public  prosecutor  may  interfere,  and  yet  a  crime  has 
been  committed.  There  are  many  well-organized  matri- 
monial agencies,  and  any  number  of  procurers  and  pro- 
curesses who  are  searching  candidates  for  the  "sacred 
wedded  state."  These  transactions  are  especially  profit- 
able when  performed  in  the  interest  of  members  of  the 
upper  classes.  In  1878  a  procuress  was  tried  in  Vienna 
who  had  been  accused  of  being  an  accomplice  in  murder, 
and  was  finally  sentenced  to  fifteen  years'  imprisonment. 
Among  other  things  the  trial  revealed  that  the  former 
French  ambassador  to  Vienna,  Count  Banneville,  had 
paid  this  woman  22,000  guilders  for  procuring  a  wife  for 
him.  Other  members  of  the  aristocracy  were  also  in- 
volved in  this  trial.  For  years  the  authorities  had  per- 
mitted  this  woman  to  ply  her  criminal  trade  unmolested. 
In  the  capital  of  the  German  Empire  similar  occurrences 
were  reported.  They  are  met  with  wherever  there  are 
persons  seeking  to  contract  mercenary  marriages.  Dur- 
ing the  last  few  decades  the  daughters  and  heiresses  of 
American  millionaires  have  become  special  objects  of 
desire  to  the  pauperized  European  nobility.  These 
American  women,  on  the  other  hand,  have  exchanged 
their  millions  for  the  rank  and  title  that  are  unknown  in 
their  own  country.  A  number  of  communications,  pub- 
lished in  the  German  press  during  the  fall  of  1889,  con- 
tained some  characteristic  information  on  this  subject. 
According  to  this  a  German  nobleman  living  in  California 
had  offered  his  services  as  a  match-maker  by  advertising 
in  German  and  Austrian  papers.  The  offers  he  received 
in  return  clearly  show  the  conceptions  prevailing  in  the 
circles  concerned,  in  regard  to  the  sanctity  of  marriage 
and  its  ethical  side.  Two  Prussian  army  officers,  mem- 
bers of  an  ancient  nobility,  sought  his  services,  and 
frankly  stated  as  the  reason  of  their  doing  so,  the  fact, 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  115 

that  together  they  owed  over  15,000  dollars.  In  their 
letter  to  the  procurer  they  literally  wrote :  "It  is  self- 
understood  that  we  cannot  pay  anything  in  advance. 
You  will  receive  your  remuneration  immediately  after 
the  wedding  journey.  Only  recommend  ladies  to  us 
whose  families  are  in  no  wise  objectionable.  We  would 
also  consider  it  very  desirable  to  meet  ladies  who  are 
particularly  good-looking.  If  required,  we  will  give  your 
agent  our  photographs,  who  can  also  give  us  further 
details,  show  us  the  ladies'  photographs,  etc.  We  regard 
this  whole  transaction  as  an  affair  of  honor  ( !)  and 
expect  the  same  of  you.  We  expect  an  early  reply 
through  your  agent  on  this  side. 

"Baron  v.  M 

"Baron  v.  W 

"Berlin,  Frederick  St.  107,  Dec.  15,  1889." 

A  young  German  nobleman,  Hans  v.  H wrote 

from  London  that  he  were  five  foot  ten,  of  ancient 
nobility,  and  employed  in  diplomatic  service.  He  con- 
fessed that  his  fortune  had  been  greatly  diminished  by 
unsuccessful  betting  at  the  races,  and  that  he  was  there- 
fore compelled  to  seek  a  rich  wife.  "I  am  prepared,"  he 
wrote,  "to  come  -to  the  United  States  immediately."  The 
German-American  nobleman  asserted  that  besides  a  num- 
ber of  counts,  barons,  etc.,  he  had  counted  among  his 
customers  three  princes  and  sixteen  dukes.  Some  men 
who  were  not  the  proud  possessors  of  a  title  bargained 
for  American  heiresses  likewise.  An  architect,  Max  W. 
from  Leipsic,  asked  for  a  fiancee  who  must  be  rich, 
beautiful  and  cultured.  A  young  manufacturer,  Robert 
D.,  from  Kehl  on  the  Rhine,  wrote  that  he  would  content 
himself  with  a  fiancee  owning  100,000  dollars,  and  prom- 
ised in  advance  that  he  would  make  her  happy.  But  we 
need  not  look  far  to  find  further  instances  of  this  sort. 
We  need  but  glance  at  the  matrimonial  advertisements 
in  many  of  our  capitalistic  papers  to  recognize  them  as 
the  outward  signs  of  degrading  views.  The  prostitute 
who  plies  her  trade  as  a  result  of  bitter  need  is  morally 
superior  to  these  marriage  seekers.  The  editor  of  a 
Socialist  paper  who  should  venture  to  publish  such 
advertisements  would  be  expelled  from  his  party.  The 


n6  Disruption  of  the  Family 

capitalistic  press  does  not  hesitate  to  publish  such  adver- 
tisements, because  they  pay.  But  that  does  not  prevent 
this  same  press  from  railing  against  the  Socialistic  prin- 
ciples as  being  destructive  of  marriage.  No  age  has  been 
more  hypocritical  than  ours.  Most  of  these  newspapers 
are  nothing  more  or  less  than  matrimonial  agencies.  One 
might  fill  entire  pages  with  clippings  taken  from  leading 
newspapers  on  a  single  day.  Sometimes  the  interesting 
fact  is  revealed,  that  even  ministers  are  sought  in  this 
way  and  that  ministers  also  resort  to  this  method  to 
seek  wives.  Sometimes  the  applicants  even  consent  to 
overlook  a  moral  blemish,  provided  that  the  girl  is  rich. 
The  moral  degradation  of  certain  strata  of  society  could 
not  be  more  vividly  exposed  than  by  this  sort  of 
marriage. 


CHAPTER    IX. 
Disruption  of  the  Family. 

i. — Increase  of  Divorce. 

The  part  played  by  church  and  state  in  this  sort  of 
"sacred  marriage"  is  not  a  worthy  one.  The  state  offi- 
cial or  the  officiating  clergyman  whose  task  it  is  to 
perform  the  marriage  ceremony,  never  pauses  to  con- 
sider by  what  methods  the  couple  he  is  about  to  join  in 
wedlock  have  been  brought  together.  It  may  be  quite 
evident,  that  the  two  are  in  no  wise  mated  either  in  regard 
to  their  ages  or  in  regard  to  physical  and  mental  quali- 
ties ;  the  bride  may,  for  instance,  be  tweny  and  the  groom 
seventy,  or  vice  versa ;  the  bride  may  be  beautiful  and 
full  of  vitality,  the  groom  may  be  old,  cross  and  inflicted 
with  infirmities,  it  makes  no  difference  to  the  represen- 
tative of  state  and  church.  The  marriage  is  consecrated, 
and  the  consecration  is  most  solemn  in  character  where 
the  monetary  reward  for  this  "holy  function"  is  most 
generous.  But  when  such  a  marriage  turns  out  to  be 
an  exceedingly  unhappy  one,  as  could  have  been  foreseen 
by  anybody,  and  frequently  was  foreseen  by  the  unfor- 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  117 

Innate  victim  itself — the  woman  generally  being  the 
victim — and  when  one  or  the  other  party  then  seeks 
separation,  both  church  and  state  place  the  greatest  diffi-j 
culties  in  their  way.  Yet  neither  church  nor  state  ques- 
tioned in  advance  whether  love  and  moral  sentiments, 
or  shameless,  coarse  egotism  brought  about  the  union. 
Moral  revulsion  is  not  considered  sufficient  cause  for 
separation ;  obvious  proofs  are  demanded,  proofs  that  will 
degrade  one  or  the  other  party  in  public  opinion,  to 
make  divorce  possible.  That  the  Catholic  Church  does 
not  permit  divorce  at  all,  except  by  special  permission 
from  the  pope,  which  is  very  hard  to  obtain,  makes  condi- 
tions particularly  unfavorable  among  the  Catholic  popu- 
lation. The  German  code  of  civil  law  has  also  made 
divorce  much  more  difficult.  Thus  divorce  by  mutual 
consent,  that  had  been  permitted  by  Prussian  law,  was 
abolished.  Many  divorces  had  been  granted  under  this 
law,  some  for  more  serious  reasons  that  were  concealed 
out  of  regard  for  the  guilty  party.  In  Berlin,  for  in- 
stance, there  were  5,623  divorces  from  1886  until  1892; 
1,400  of  these,  approximately  25  per  cent.,  were  granted 
upon  mutual  consent.  In  many  cases  divorce  is  granted 
only  then,  when  the  party  seeking  divorce  does  so  within 
six  months  after  discovery  of  the  cause  for  divorce. 
According  to  Prussian  law,  the  time  limit  is  one  year. 
Take,  for  example,  that  a  young  wife  discovers  soon 
after  her  marriage,  that  she  is  tied  to  a  man  who  is  no 
husband  to  her  at  all.  It  is  asking  a  great  deal  that  she 
should  determine  on  divorce  within  six  months,  a  step 
that  requires  a  considerable  amount  of  moral  strength. 
To  justify  the  increased  difficulty  in  divorce,  the  follow- 
ing argument  is  advanced:  "Only  by  making  divorce 
increasingly  difficult,  can  the  advancing  disruption  of 
the  family  be  counteracted  and  the  family  bonds  be 
strengthened."  This  argument  is  a  contradiction  in 
itself.  A  disrupted  marriage  is  not  made  bearable  by 
forcing  husband  and  wife  to  continue  living  together  in 
spite  of  their  inward  estrangement  and  mutual  aversion. 
A  condition  of  this  sort,  maintained  by  law,  is  pro- 
foundly immoral.  The  result  is  that  in  a  large  number 
of  cases  adultery  is  made  a  cause  for  divorce,  since  this 


n8  Disruption  of  the  Family 

cause  cannot  be  ignored  by  the  law ;  neither  the  state 
nor  society  are  improved  by  this  process.  It  must  also 
be  regarded  as  a  concession  to  the  Catholic  Church,  that 
in  many  cases  separation  takes  the  place  of  divorce 
which  was  formerly  not  the  case  according  to  civil  law. 
It  is  no  longer  considered  a  cause  for  divorce,  when 
through  the  fault  of  the  one  party,  a  marriage  remains 
childless.  The  new  German  code  of  civil  law  contains 
the  following  paragraph  :  "The  religious  duties  in  regard 
to  marriage  are  not  touched  upon  in  the  rules  laid  down 
in  this  paragraph."  This  likewise  is  a  concession  to  the 
church.  It  is  merely  ornamental  in  character,  but  it  is 
characteristic  of  the  spirit  still  prevailing  in  Germany  at 
the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century.  For  our  pur- 
poses the  admission  is  important,  that  divorce  was  made 
more  difficult  to  counteract  the  advancing  disruption  of 
the  family. 

Human  beings  then  remain  chained  to  one  another 
for  lifetime  against  their  will.  One  party  becomes  a 
slave  to  the  other  and  is  forced  in  fulfillment  of  "matri- 
monial duties,"  to  endure  intimate  embraces  that  perhaps 
seem  more  loathsome  than  harsh  words  and  ill  treat- 
ment. Rightly  Mantegazza  says:  "There  is  no  greater 
torture  than  to  suffer  the  caresses  of  an  unloved  per- 
son...."* Is  such  marriage  not  worse  than  prostitu- 
tion? Even  the  prostitute  has  a  certain  degree  of  liberty 
of  withdrawing  from  her  abominable  trade,  and  if  she 
is  not  the  inmate  of  a  public  brothel,  she  may  refuse 
herself  to  a  man  she  does  not  wish  for  some  reason  or 
other.  But  a  woman  sold  in  marriage  must  endure  the 
embraces  of  her  husband,  even  though  she  have  a  hun- 
dred reasons  to  hate  and  despise  him. 

If  the  marriage  has  been  contracted  from  the  outset 
and  by  mutual  understanding,  as  a  mere  marriage  of 
convenience,  matters  are  not  quite  as  bad.  Mutual  obli- 
gations are  considered  and  a  bearable  mode  of  life  is 
found.  Scandal  is  avoided,  especially  out  of  considera- 
tion for  the  children,  where  such  exist;  and  yet  it  must 
be  said  that  the  children  are  the  ones  to  suffer  most 


The  Physiology  of  Love. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  119 

when  their  parents  lead  a  cold,  indifferent  life,  devoid 
of  love,  even  if  it  does  not  deteriorate  into  a  life  of  open 
hostility.  More  frequently  yet  an  agreement  is  accom- 
plished to  avoid  material  loss.  Usually  the  husband's 
misbehavior  is  the  cause  of  trouble  in  marriage;  that 
may  be  seen  from  the  divorce  cases.  When  a  man 
remains  dissatisfied  with  his  marriage  his  domineering 
position  enables  him  to  find  compensation  elsewhere. 
The  woman  is  far  less  inclined  to  go  astray,  firstly  be- 
cause physiological  reasons  make  a  transgression  much 
more  dangerous  in  her  case,  and  secondly  because  when 
she  is  the  one  to  break  the  marital  vow,  it  is  considered 
a  crime  that  society  will  not  condone.  The  woman  alone 
— be  she  wife,  widow  or  maiden — has  "fallen" ;  the  man, 
when  he  commits  the  same  sin,  has,  at  the  worst,  behaved 
with  impropriety.  The  same  action  then  is  judged  by 
entirely  different  standards,  according  to  whether  it  has 
been  committed  by  a  man  or  by  a  woman,  and  the 
women  themselves  are  often  most  bitter  and  unmerciful 
in  their  condemnation  of  a  "fallen"  sister.* 

As  a  rule,  women  will  seek  divorce  only  in  cases  of 
flagrant  infidelity  or  gross  ill-treatment,  because  they  are 
in  a  dependent  position  and  are  obliged  to  regard  mar- 
riage as  a  means  of  subsistence;  also  because  the  social 
position  of  a  divorced  woman  is  not  an  enviable  one. 
She  is  regarded  and  treated  more  or  less  as  a  cipher.  If 
in  spite  of  all  this  women  constitute  the  majority  of 
plaintives  in  divorce  cases,  this  goes  to  prove  what  moral 
tortures  they  must  endure.  In  France,  even  before  the 
introduction  of  the  new  divorce  laws,  by  far  the  most 
proceedings  for  separation  were  instituted  by  women. 
Until  1884  a  woman  in  France  could  sue  for  divorce 
only  in  case  her  husband  brought  the  woman  with  whom 
he  maintained  an  intimate  relation  into  the  domicile  of 


^Alexander  Dumas  correctly  says  in  "Monsieur  Alphonse" : 
"Man  has  created  two  standards" of  morality:  one  for  himself,  and 
one  for  woman,  one  that  permits  him  to  love  all  women,  and  an- 
other that  permits  woman  as  a  compensation  for  her  lost  freedom, 
to  be  loved  by  but  one  man."  See  also  Marguerite's  self-accusation 
in  "Faust." 


120  Disruption  of  the  Family 

his  wife  against  her  will.     Thus  proceedings  for  separa- 
tion were  instituted  annually  by : 

Women.    Men.  Women.    Men. 

1856 — 1861.. 1,729       184  1866 — -1871..  2,591       330 

1861 — 1866.. 2,135       260  1901 — 1905.. 2,368       591 

Not  only  were  the  majority  of  proceedings  instituted 
by  women,  the  figures  also  show  that  their  number 
steadily  increased.  By  information  gathered  from  re- 
liable sources  it  may  be  seen,  that  elsewhere  also  the 
greater  number  of  actions  for  divorce  and  separation  are 
instituted  by  women,  as  the  following  table  shows  :* 

PERCENTAGE  OF  NUMBER  OF  PLAJNTJVES. 

DIVOBCES-  Husbands 

During  the  years.  Husbands.  Wives,  and  wives. 

Austria    1893 — 1897  4.4  5.0  90.6 

Roumania   1891 — 1895  30.6  68.9  0.5 

Switzerland    1895 — 1899  26.4  45.4  8.2 

France   1895 — 1899  40.0  59.1 

Baden    1895—1899  36.0  59.1  4.9 

England  &  Wales. .  1895 — 1899  60.4  39.6 

Scotland    1898 — 1899  43.3  56.7 

SEPARATIONS. 

Austria    1897 — 1899  4.9         16.6        78.5 

France   1895 — 1899  15.9         84.1 

England  &  Wales..  1 895 — 1899  3.0         97.0 

Scotland    1898 — 1899  •  •  IO°. 

In  the  United  States,  where  the  divorce  statistics 
cover  a  period  of  forty  years,  we  find  the  following  ratio : 

1867—1886.  P.  C.  1887-1906.  P.  C.       1906.  P.  C. 

Men    112,540     34.2  316,149     33.4  23,455  32.5 

Women    . . .  216,176    65.8  629,476    66.6  48,607  67.5 

Total 328,716      100  945,625      loo  72,062  100 

The  above  table  shows  that  in  more  than  two-thirds 
of  all  divorce  cases  women  were  the  plaintiffs.** 

*George  v.  Meyr :    "Statistics  and  Social  Science." 
**Marriage  and   Divorce.     1887 — 1906.     Bureau   of  the   Census, 
Bulletin  06,  p.  12.     Washington,  D.  C.,  1908. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  121 

In  Italy  we  find  a  similar  ratio.  During  1887  there 
were  1,221  divorce  cases;  593  of  these  were  instituted  by 
wives,  214  by  husbands,  414  by  both  husbands  and  wives. 
In  1904  there  were  2,103  cases;  1,142  by  wives,  454  by 
husbands,  and  507  by  both. 

Statistics  teach  us  that  the  majority  of  divorces  are 
sought  by  women,  and  they  furthermore  teach  us  that 
the  number  of  divorces  is  rapidly  increasing.  Since  the 
introduction  of  the  new  divorce  law  in  France  in  1884, 
the  divorces  have  increased  from  year  to  year,  as  follows : 

Years  1884.     1885.     1890.     1895.     1900.      1905.       1906.      1907. 

Divorces.   ...1,657    4,123    6,557    7,760    7,820     10,019     10,573     10,938 

In  Switzerland,  too,  the  divorce-rate  is  increasing. 
From  1886  to  1890  there  were  882  divorces.  From  1891 
to  1895  there  were  898  divorces;  in  1897,  1,011;  in  1898, 
1,018;  in  1899,  1,091;  in  1905,  1,206;  in  1906,  1,343.  In 
Austria  during  1899  there  were  856  divorces  and  133 
separations.  In  1900  there  were  1,310  divorces  and 
163  separations.  In  1905  there  were  1,885  divorces  and 
262  separations.  The  number  of  divorces  and  separa- 
tions have  been  doubled  during  a  decade.  In  Vienna 
there  were  148  divorces  in  1870  and  1871 ;  they  increased 
with  each  succeeding  year  until  in  1878  and  1879  there 
were  319  cases.  Vienna  being  a  Catholic  city,  divorces 
are  not  easily  obtained.  Nevertheless,  a  Viennese  judge 
exclaimed  during  the  eighties:  "The  charge  of  broken 
marriage  vows  is  as  frequent  as  the  charge  of  broken 
windows." 

The  following  shows  the  increasing  divorce-rate  in 
the  United  States: 

Years    1867.         1886.         1895.         1902.         1906. 

Divorces 9,937       25,535       4O-387       61,480       72,062 

If  the  number  of  divorces  in  relation  to  the  population 
had  remained  the  same  in  1905  as  in  1870,  the  exact 
number  of  divorces  in  1905  would  have  been  24,000,  and 
not  67,791,  as  actually  was  the  case.  The  total  number 
of  divorces  from  1867  to  1886  was  328,716;  from  1887  to 
1906,  945,625.  The  United  States  have  the  highest 
divorce-rate.  For  every  thousand  marriages  there  were 
the  following  number  of  divorces:  In  1870,  81 ;  in  1880, 


122  Disruption  of  the  Family 

107;  in  1890,  148;  in  1900,  200.  Why  is  divorce  more 
frequent  in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other  country? 
Firstly,  because  in  some  of  the  states  the  divorce  laws 
are  less  rigorous  than  in  most  of  the  other  countries,  and, 
secondly,  because  women  enjoy  a  freer,  more  indepen- 
dent position  than  in  any  other  country  of  the  world, 
and  are  accordingly  less  willing  to  submit  to  the  tyranny 
of  husbands. 

The  following  shows  the  number  of  divorces  in  Ger- 
many from  1891  to  1900: 

Years    ............  1891.  1892.  1893.  1894.  1895. 

Divorces  ..........  6,678  6,513 


Years    ............  1896.  1897.  1898.  1899.  1900. 

Divorces  .........  8,601  9,005  9.143  9,563 


We  see  that  from  1899  to  I9OO>  the  number  of  divorces 
have  decreased  by  1,635,  because  on  the  first  of  January, 
1900,  the  new  code  of  civil  law  went  into  effect  which 
made  divorce  more  difficult.  But  life  is  stronger  than 
law.  After  there  was  a  decrease  in  the  divorce-rate  from 
1900  to  1902,  there  has  been  a  rapid  increase  ever  since, 
as  the  following  table  shows: 

Years  ............  1901.     1902.     1903.      1904.       1905.       1906.       1907. 

Divorces  .........  7,964    9,069    9,933     10,868     11,147     12,180     12,489 

In  Saxony,  too,  in  spite  of  various  fluctuations,  there 
has  been  a  steady  increase,  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
following  table  : 

For  each  1,000 
Years.  Divorces.          marriages. 

1836—1840  ----  ----        356  121 

1846—1850  ........      395  121 

1871—1875  ........        58l  122 

1891—1895  ........        921  138 

1896  —  1900  ........     1,130  151 

1901—1905  ........   1,385  168 

For  each  thousand  marriages  in  Prussia  there  were 
the  following  number  of  divorces:  1881  to  1885,  67.62; 
1886  to  1890,  80.55;  1891  to  1895,  86.77;  1896,  101.97; 
1905,  106;  1908,  121.  That  is  a  tremendous  increase. 
The  increase  of  divorce  is  not  a  national  but  an  inter- 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  123 

national  symptom.     For  each  thousand  marriages  there 
were  the  following  number  of  divorces  in : 

At  the  close 
1876-1880.  1881-1885.  1886-1890.  of  the  century. 

Austria 19.4  197  31- 

Hungary    31.6  30.4  30.5  58. 

Roumania    37.3  52-3  73-1  98- 

Italy   n.8  11.3  10.6  15. 

France    33.9  75.9  80.9  129. 

England  &  Wales.  .     6.5  7.4  7.  10.6 

Scotland  12.3  13.  16.7  26. 

Ireland   0.6  0.4  i.i  I. 

Belgium 25.5  31.9  43.  72. 

Netherlands . .  . .  78. 

Norway    13.9  12.1  19.3  33. 

Sweden 28.5  28.6  31.6  45. 

Finland 16.1  7.8  10.0  29. 

Switzerland  220.  200.  188.  199.9 

It  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  draw  conclusions  from 
these  widely  diverging  figures  about  the  moral  status  of 
the  various  countries  enumerated  above.  No  one  would 
claim,  that  cause  for  divorce  is  four  times  greater  among 
the  Swedish  people  than  among  the  English  people.  The 
laws  must  be  taken  into  consideration  that  make  divorce 
more  or  less  difficult  as  the  case  may  be.*  The  moral 
status,  that  is,  the  causes  making  divorce  appear  desir- 
able to  either  man  or  woman,  are  a  secondary  considera- 
tion. But  the  figures  show,  that  the  divorce-rate  is  in- 
creasing more  rapidly  than  the  population ;  that  is 
increasing,  in  fact,  while  the  marriage-rate  is  decreas- 
ing. We  will  return  to  this  phase  of  the  question  later 
on.  Great  differences  of  age  between  husband  and  wife 
play  a  considerable  part  in  divorce.  That  is  shown  by 
the  following  table  gathered  from  official  statistics  in 
Switzerland : 


*In  England  divorce  is  a  privilege  enjoyed  by  the  rich.  The 
cost  of  a  trial  is  so  exorbitant,  that  divorce  becomes  almost  impos- 
sible to  people  of  moderate  means,  especially  as  it  necessitates  a 
journey  to  London.  In  the  whole  country  there  is  only  one  divorce 
court,  which  is  situated  in  London. 


124  Disruption  of  the  Family 

NUMBER   OF   DIVORCES    FOR    EACH    1,000    MARRIAGES 
WITH  SAME  DIFFERENCE  OF  AGE. 

1881 — 1890.  1891 — 1900. 

Man  older ;  26  years  and  more 271  328 

Man  older ;  1 1  to  25  years 189  198 

Man  older;  I  to  10  years 193  181 

Husband  and  wife  of  same  age 195  190 

Man  younger;  I  to  10  years 226  226 

Man  younger;  n  to  25  years 365  431 

Man  younger ;  26  years  and  more 759  870 

The  following  statistics  from  Saxony  during  1905  and 
1906,  and  from  Prussia  from  1895  to  T9°5>  show  the 
divorce-rate  in  its  relation  to  the  various  strata  of 
society : 

ANNUAL  DIVORCES  FOR  EACH   100,000  MARRIED   MEN. 

Saxony.      Prussia. 

Agriculture   59  34 

Industry  220  158 

Commerce   297  229 

Public  service  and  learned  professions.  . .  .346  165 

In  Saxony  divorces  were  most  frequent  among  offi- 
cials and  professional  men.  In  Prussia  they  were  most 
frequent  among  those  employed  in  commerce.  In  Saxony 
those  employed  in  commerce  came  second;  in  Prussia, 
officials  and  professional  men.  Men  employed  in  industry 
come  third;  220  in  Saxony,  and  158  in  Prussia.  Those 
employed  in  agriculture  furnished  the  lowest  figures. 
When  we  compare  the  growing  number  of  divorces  in 
the  cities  with  those  among  the  rural  population,  we  are 
led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  rapid  development  of  in- 
dustry, accompanied  by  an  increasing  instability  of  pub- 
lic life,  makes  the  marriage  relation  more  unfavorable, 
and  adds  to  the  factors  that  make  for  the  disruption  of 
marriage.  On  the  other  hand,  the  growing  divorce-rate 
shows,  that  the  number  of  women  are  increasing  who 
resolve  to  cast  off  a  yoke  that  has  become  unbearable. 

2. — Bourgeois  and  Proletarian  Marriage. 

The  corruption  of  marriage  increases  at  the  same 
rate  at  which  the  struggle  for  existence  grows  more 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  125 

severe,  making  matrimony  more  and  more  an  object  of 
mercenary  speculation.  As  it  is  becoming  increasingly 
difficult  to  support  a  family,  many  men  choose  to  refrain 
from  marrying,  and  so  the  declamations  about  it  being 
woman's  duty  to  practice  her  natural  profession  of  wife- 
hood  and  motherhood,  are  just  so  many  meaningless 
phrases.  On  the  other  hand,  these  conditions  are  bound 
to  foster  illegitimate  relations  and  to  increase  the  number 
of  prostitutes;  they  also  increase  the  number  of  those 
who  fall  victims  to  an  unnatural  satisfaction  of  the 
sexual  impulse. 

Among  the  ruling  classes  the  wife  is  frequently 
degraded,  just  as  she  was  in  ancient  Greece,  to  the  mere 
functions  of  bearing  legitimate  children,  acting  as  house- 
keeper, or  serving  as  nurse  to  a  husband  ruined  by  a 
life  of  debauchery.  For  his  amusement,  or  to  gratify 
his  desire  for  love,  the  man  maintains  courtesans  01 
mistresses  who  live  in  elegance  and  luxury.  Others  who 
do  not  have  the  means  of  maintaining  mistresses,  asso- 
ciate with  prostitutes  during  marriage  as  before  mar- 
riage, and  a  number  of  wives  are  sufficiently  corrupted 
to  consider  such  relations  quite  proper.* 

In  the  upper  and  middle  classes  of  society  the  chief 
evil  in  marriage  is  its  mercenary  character.  But  this 
evil  is  still  heightened  by  the  mode  of  life  that  prevails 
among  these  classes.  That  applies  to  the  women  as  well 
as  to  the  men,  since  they  frequently  lead  lives  of  idleness 
or  devote  themselves  to  corrupting  occupations.  The 
society  woman's  spiritual  nourishment  usually  consists 


*In  his  book  on  "The  Woman  Question  in  the  Middle  Ages," 
that  T  have  frequently  .quoted,  Buecher  laments  the  dissolution  of 
marriage  and  the  family.  He  condemns  the  employment  of  women 
in  industry,  and  demands  that  woman  should  return  to  her  "particu- 
lar sphere,"  the  only  one  where  she  creates  "real  values,"  the  home 
and  the  family.  The  aims  of  the  modern  woman  movement  appear 
"amateurish"  to  him,  and  he  expresses  the  hope  that  "a  better  way 
may  be  found."  But  he  fails  to  point  out  a  successful  way.  From 
his  bourgeois  point  of  view  it  would  be  impossible  to  do  so.  The 
matrimonial  conditions  as  also  the  position  of  women  in  general,  are 
not  the  result  of  wilful  creation.  They  are  the  natural  product  of 
social  evolution,  and  this  social  evolution  is  consummated  in  accord- 
ance with  inherent  laws. 


126  Disruption  of  the  Family 

of  the  following:  Reading  ambiguous  novels,  visiting 
frivolous  plays,  enjoying  sensuous  music,  resorting  to 
intoxicating  stimulants,  and  indulging  in  scandal-monger- 
ing.  Idleness  and  ennui  frequently  entice  her  into  love- 
intrigues,  that  are  sought  more  eagerly  still  by  the  men 
of  her  circles.  In  the  mad  pursuit  of  pleasure  she  rushes 
from  one  banquet  and  entertainment  to  another,  and  in 
summer  she  goes  to  watering-places  and  summer  resorts 
to  rest  from  the  exertions  of  the  winter  and  to  seek  new 
amusement.  Scandals  are  a  daily  occurrence  with  this 
mode  of  life ;  men  seduce  and  women  allow  themselves 
to  be  seduced. 

Among  the  lower  classes  mercenary  marriage  is  prac- 
tically unknown.  The  workingman  generally  marries  for 
love,  but  nevertheless  many  harmful  and  destructive  in- 
fluences exist  in  the  proletarian  marriage  also.  Blessed 
with  many  children,  cares  and  worries  ensue,  and  all  too 
often  bitter  poverty  prevails.  Disease  and  death  are 
frequent  guests  in  the  proletarian  family,  and  unemploy- 
ment heightens  the  misery.  Many  are  the  factors  that 
lessen  the  workingman's  income  and  frequently  deprive 
him  of  that  meagre  income  altogether.  Hard  times  and 
industrial  crises  throw  him  out  of  employment ;  the  intro- 
duction of  new  machinery  or  of  new  methods  of  produc- 
tion, makes  him  superfluous ;  wars,  unfavorable  tariff 
and  commercial  treaties,  the  imposition  of  new  indirect 
taxes,  or  black-listing  by  his  employers  as  a  result  of 
his  political  convictions,  destroy  his  means  of  subsist- 
ence or  gravely  injure  them.  From  time  to  time  one  or 
another  thing  occurs  that  entails  a  longer  or  shorter 
period  of  unemployment  with  its  accompanying  misery 
and  starvation.  Uncertainty  is  the  mark  of  his  existence. 
Such  vicissitudes  are  productive  of  ill  temper  and  bitter 
feelings  that  most  frequently  lead  to  outbursts  in 
domestic  life  where  demands  are  made  daily  and  hourly 
that  cannot  be  satisfied.  This  leads  to  quarrels  and 
harsh  words  and  eventually  to  a  rupture  in  the  marriage 
relation. 

Frequently  both  husband  and  wife  must  work  for  a 
living.  The  children  are  left  to  themselves  or  to  the  care 
of  older  brothers  and  sisters,  who  are  still  in  need  of 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  127 

care   and    education   themselves.     The   noon-day    meal, 
usually  of  the  poorest  quality,   is   devoured   in   utmost 
haste,  provided  that  the  parents  have  time  to  come  home 
for  this  meal.   In  the  majority  of  cases  this  is  impossible, 
owing  to  the  distances  between  homes  and  factories  and 
to  the  brevity  of  the  time  allowed  for  rest.     Weary  and 
worn,  both  parents  return  at  night.    Instead  of  a  cheerful, 
pleasant  home  to  come  to,  theirs  is  only  a  small,  unsani- 
tary dwelling,  frequently  wanting  in  fresh  air  and  light 
and    devoid    of    the    most    elementary    comforts.      The 
scarcity  of  available  lodgings  with  all  the  resulting  evils, 
is  one  of  the  darkest  phases  of  our  social  system  that 
leads   to   countless   vices   and    crimes.      In   spite   of   all 
attempts  at  relief,  the  housing  problem  is  becoming  more 
serious  every  year  in  all  the  larger  centers  of  industry ; 
and  other  starta  of  society,  such  as  professional  people, 
clerks,  officials,  teachers,  small  dealers,  etc.,  are  affected 
by    it.  '   The    workingman's    wife    who    returns    to    her 
"home"  at  night  exhausted  from  a  day's  hard  labor,  must 
begin  work  anew.     She  must  toil  in  feverish  haste  to 
attend  to  the  most  necessary  details   of  housekeeping. 
After  the  children  have  been  put  to  bed,  she  still  con- 
tinues to  mend  and  sew  until  far  into  the  night.     Rest 
and  recuperation  are  unknown  to  her.     The  man  often 
is  ignorant  and  the  woman  still  more  so,  and  the  little 
they  have  to  say  to  one  another  is  quickly  said.     The 
man  goes  to  a  saloon  where  he  at  least  finds  some  of 
the  comforts  that  he  lacks  at  home;  he  drinks,  and  no 
matter  how  little  he  spends,  he  is  spending  too  much 
tor  his  income.     Sometimes  he  falls  a  victim  to  the  vice 
of  gambling,  that  claims  many  victims  in  the  upper  strata 
of  society  also,  and  then  still  loses  more  than  he  spends 
on  drink.     Meanwhile  the  woman  is  brooding  at  home 
full  of  grudge.     She  must  toil  like  a  beast  of  burden, 
there  is  no  rest  or  recreation  for  her;  but  the  man  enjoys 
the  liberty  that  is  his,  just  because  he  had  the  good  for- 
tune of  having  been  born  a  man.     Thus  discord  arises. 
If  the  woman  is   less   conscientious;  if  she,  too,   seeks 
pleasure  and  diversion  when  she  has  returned  from   a 
hard  day  of  work,  to  which  she  is  surely  entitled,  her 


128  Disruption  of  the  Family 

household  goes  to  ruin  and  the  misery  becomes  greater 
still.  Nevertheless,  we  are  living  in  "the  best  of  worlds." 
Thus  marriage  is  constantly  being  disrupted  among 
the  proletariat  also.  Even  favorable  periods  of  employ- 
ment often  have  a  detrimental  influence,  for  they  involve 
over-time  work  and  sometimes  also  work  on  Sunday, 
thereby  depriving  the  worker  of  the  little  time  he  is  able 
to  devote  to  his  family.  Often  the  distances  from  the 
workingmen's  homes  to  their  places  of  employment  are 
so  great,  that  they  must  leave  at  day-break,  when  the 
children  are  still  soundly  asleep,  and  do  not  return  until 
late  at  night  when  they  are  sleeping  again.  Thousands 
of  workingmen,  especially  those  connected  with  the 
building  trades,  remain  away  from  home  during  the 
entire  week  and  only  return  to  their  families  on  Saturday 
night.  How  can  family  relations  prosper  under  such  con- 
ditions?! At  the  same  time  the  number  of  women 
workers  is  constantly  growing,  especially  in  the  textile 
industries,  for  thousands  of  spinning-machines  and 
power-looms  are  being  tended  by  women  and  children, 
whose  labor  is  cheap.  Here  matrimonial  relations  have 
been  reversed.  While  the  wife  and  the  children  go  to 
the  factory,  the  unemployed  man  not  infrequently,  re- 
mains at  home  performing  the  domestic  duties.  "In  a 
number  of  cloth  factories  in  Chemnitz  we  find  women 
who  are  employed  there  only  during  the  winter  months, 
because  their  husbands  who  are  road-builders,  masons 
or  carpenters,  earn  little  or  nothing  in  winter.  During 
the  absence  of  the  women,  the  men1  attend  to  the  house- 
keeping."* In  the  United  States,  where  capitalism  has 
developed  so  rapidly,  that  all  its  evils  are  manifest  on  a 
much  larger  scale  than  in  the  industrial  countries  of 
Europe,  a  characteristic  name  has  been  coined  for  this 
state  of  affairs.  Industrial  centers  where  women  are 
mainly  employed  while  men  remain  at  home,  have  been 
called  "she-towns."** 

*Technics  and  Political  Economy. 

rfhe  following  clipping  taken  from  an  American  newspaper  in 
1803  gives  an  adequate  description  of  a  "she-town"  :  "A  singularity 
that  is  met  with  in  the  factory  towns  of  Maine,  is  a  class  of  men 
who  may  rightly  be  called  housekeepers.  Any  one  visiting  some 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  129 

At  present  it  is  generally  conceded  that  women  should 
be  admitted  to  all  trades.  Capitalistic  society  in  its  mad 
chase  of  profits  has  long  since  recognized,  that  women 
can  be  more  profitably  exploited  than  men,  since  they 
are  by  nature  more  pliant  and  meek.*  Accordingly  the 
number  of  trades  in  which  women  may  find  employment 
are  increasing  with  every  year.  The  constant  improve- 
ment of  machinery,  the  simplifying  of  the  process  of 
labor  by  an  increased  division  of  labor,  and  the  competi- 
tive warfare  among  individual  capitalists,  as  also  among 
rival  industrial  countries — all  favor  the  steady  increase 
of  woman  labor.  The  phenomenon  is  common  to  all 
industrially  advanced  countries.  As  the  number  of 
women  in  industry  increases,  the  competition  between 
them  and  the  male  workers  grows  more  severe.  The 
reports  of  factory  inspectors  and  statistical  investiga- 
tions prove  this. 

The  position  of  women  is  especially  unfavorable  in 
those  trades  in  which  they  predominate  as,  for  instance, 
the  clothing  trades,  and  particularly  in  those  branches  in 
which  the  workers  perform  the  work  in  their  own  home. 
Investigations  concerning  the  condition  of  women  work- 
ers in  the  manufacture  of  underwear  and  the  clothing 
trades,  were  made  in  Germany  in  1886.  This  investiga- 
tion showed  among  other  things  that  the  miserable  pay 


of  these  workers'  homes  shortly  nfter  the  noon  hour,  will  find  the 
men,  wearing  an  apron,  washing  dishes.  At  other  hours  of  the  day 
they  may  be  seen  making  the  beds,  dressing  the  children,  scrubbing 
or  cooking.  .  .  .  These  men  do  the  housekeeping  for  the  simple 
reason  that  their  wives  can  earn  more  in  the  factories  than  they, 
and  it  is  more  economical  for  them  to  remain  at  home  while  the 
women  work." 

*"Mr.  E.,  a  manufacturer,  informs  me  that  he  employs  only 
women  at  his  power-looms.  He  prefers  married  women  and  espe- 
cially those  who  have  a  family  at  home  depending  upon  them.  They 
are  much  more  attentive  and  docile  than  unmarried  women,  and  are 
obliged  to  exert  themselves  to  the  utmost  in  order  to  earn  the  neces- 
sary means  of  subsistence.  Thus  the  peculiar  virtues  of  woman's 
character  are  turned  to  her  own  detriment,  and  the  gentleness  and 
decency  of  her  nature  become  a  means  of  her  enslavement."  From 
an  address  by  Lord  Ashley  on  the  ten-hour  bill,  1844. — Karl  Marx, 
"Capital,"  second  edition. 


130  Disruption  of  the  Family 

these     workers     received     frequently     drove     them     to 
prostitution. 

Our  Christian  government,  whose  Christianity  is 
sought  in  vain  where  it  is  really  needful,  but  is  met  with 
where  it  is  superfluous — our  Christian  government  is 
like  our  Christian  bourgeoisie,  whose  interests  it  serves. 
This  government  finds  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  decide 
upon  the  enactment  of  laws  which  would  limit  the  work 
of  women  to  a  bearable  degree  and  prohibit  child-labor 
entirely.  This  same  government  also  fails  to  grant  a 
normal  work-day  and  sufficient  rest  on  Sundays  to  its 
own  employees,  thereby  harming  their  family  relations. 
Frequently  men  employed  in  the  mail  and  railroad 
service  and  in  prisons  must  work  many  hours  overtime 
without  receiving  adequate  remuneration. 

As  the  rents  are  also  far  too  high  in  comparison  with 
the  incomes  of  the  workers,  they  must  content  themselves 
with  the  poorest  quarters.  Lodgers  of  one  sex  or  the 
other,  sometimes  of  both,  are  taken  into  the  working- 
man's  home.*  Old  and  young  of  both  sexes  live  together 
in  a  small  space  and  frequently  witness  the  most  inti- 
mate relations.  How  modesty  and  decency  fare  under 
such  conditions,  has  been  shown  by  horrible  facts.  The 
increasing  demoralization  and  brutalization  of  the  young 
that  is  being  discussed  so  much,  is  partly  due  to  these 
conditions.  Child-labor,  too,  has  the  worst  possible  in- 
fluence on  children,  both  physically  and  morally. 

The  increasing  industrial  activity  of  married  women 
has  the  most  detrimental  effect  during  pregnancy  and 
at  child-birth  and  during  the  early  babyhood  of  the  chil- 
dren, when  they  depend  upon  the  mother  for  nourish- 
ment. During  pregnancy  it  may  lead  to  a  number  of 


*The  Prussian  census  of  igoo  has  shown  that  in  Prussia  there 
are  34^7>3^  persons  not  related  to  the  families  in  whose  midst  they 
live.  In  the  entire  state  about  one-quarter  of  these  non-related 
members  of  the  households  consisted  of  strange  boarders  and 
lodgers ;  in  the  rural  districts  they  constituted  only  one-seventh,  but 
in  the  cities  one-third,  and  in  the  capital,  Berlin,  more  than  one-half. 
— G.  v.  Mayer,  "Statistics  and  Social  Science." 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  131 

diseases  that  are  destructive  to  the  unborn  child  and 
harmful  to  the  organism  of  the  woman,  and  bring-  about 
premature  births  and  still-births.  When  the  child  has 
been  born,  the  mother  is  compelled  to  return  to  the  fac- 
tory as  soon  as  possible,  lest  some  one  else  take  her  place. 
The  inevitable  result  for  the  poor,  little  babes  is  neglect 
and  improper  or  insufficient  nourishment.  They  are 
given  opiates  to  be  kept  quiet;  and  as  a  further  result 
of  all  this,  they  perish  in  masses  or  grow  up  sickly  and 
deformed.  It  means  race  degeneration.  Frequently  the 
children  grow  up  without  ever  having  experienced  real 
parental  love.  Thus  proletarians  are  born,  live  and  die ; 
and  society  and  the  state  marvel  at  it  that  brutality,  im- 
morality and  crime  are  increasing. 

During  the  sixties  of  the  last  century  the  cotton  in- 
dustry in  England  almost  came  to  a  standstill,  as  a  result 
of  the  Civil  War  that  was  being  waged  in  the  United 
States.  Accordingly,  thousands  of  working-women  were 
unemployed,  and  among  them  physicians  made  the 
astounding  observation,  that  in  spite  of  the  existing  want, 
infant  mortality  was  decreasing.  The  reason  was  that 
the  babies  now  were  being  nursed  by  their  mothers  and 
more  care  was  bestowed  on  them  than  ever  before. 
During  the  crisis  of  the  seventies  of  the  last  century 
similar  observations  were  made  in  the  United  States, 
especially  in  New  York  and  Massachusetts.  Unem- 
ployment enabled  the  women  to  devote  more  time  to 
their  children.  The  same  fact  was  noted  during  the  gen- 
eral strike  in  Sweden  in  August  and  September  of  1909. 
The  mortality  in  Stockholm  and  other  large  Swedish 
cities  had  not  been  as  low  for  many  years  as  during  the 
weeks  of  this  giant  strike.  One  of  the  eminent  medical 
authorities  of  Stockholm  declared  that  the  low  rate  of 
mortality  and  the  general  state  of  good  health  was  in 
close  connection  with  the  great  strike.  He  pointed  out 
that  the  out-of-door  life  which  was  being  led  by  the 
army  of  strikers  was  chiefly  responsible  for  this  satis- 
factory state  of  health,  for  no  matter  how  extensive  the 
sanitary  regulations  might  be,  the  air  in  the  factories 
and  workshops  was  always  more  or  less  detrimental  to 


132  Marriage  as  a  Means  of  Support 

the  health  of  the  workers.  The  same  medical  authority 
pointed  out,  furthermore,  that  the  prohibition  of  the  sale 
of  intoxicating  drinks  during  the  great  strike,  also  tended 
to  improve  the  state  of  health. 

Domestic  industry,  which  is  depicted  so  alluringly  by 
the  romancers  among  political  economists,  is  not  more 
favorable  to  the  workers.  Here  man  and  wife  both  toil 
from  dawn  to  darkness  and  the  children  are  trained  as 
helpers  from  their  earliest  childhood  on.  The  entire 
family  and  perhaps  some  assistants  live  together  in 
closest  quarters  among  rubbish  and  disagreeable  odors. 
The  bedrooms  are  similar  to  the  workshop,  usually  small, 
dark  spaces  with  insufficient  ventilation,  detrimental  to 
the  health  of  the  persons  who  are  obliged  to  sleep  in 
them. 

The  struggle  for  existence  that  is  growing  increas- 
ingly difficult,  also  sometimes  compels  men  and  women 
to  commit  acts  that  they  would  loathe  under  different 
circumstances.  It  was  shown  in  1877  m  Munich  that 
among  the  prostitutes  entered  on  lists  by  the  police,  there 
were  no  less  than  203  wives  of  workingmen  and  mechan- 
ics. Many  more  married  women  are  driven  to  occasional 
prostitution  by  need,  without  submitting  to  police  control 
that  deeply  degrades  all  modesty  and  human  dignity. 


CHAPTER    X. 
Marriage   as   a   Means   of  Support. 

i. — Decline  of  the  Marriage  Rate. 

When  we  consider  the  conditions  enumerated  above, 
it  requires  no  further  proof  to  recognize  that  a  growing 
number  of  persons  do  not  regard  the  wedded  state  as  a 
desirable  goal,  but  hesitate  to  enter  into  it.  This  explains 
the  phenomenon,  that  in  most  civilized  countries  the  mar- 
riage rate  is  stationary  or  declining.  It  was  a  matter  of 
old  experience,  that  an  increase  in  the  price  of  grain  had 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  133 

a  detrimental  effect  on  both  the  marriage  and  birth  rates. 
With  the  growing  industrial  development  of  any  country' 
the  marriage  and  birth  rates  are  influenced  more  and 
more  by  the  ups  and  downs  of  the  market.  Economic 
crises  and  a  lowering  of  the  general  economic  standard 
have  a  lasting  unfavorable  influence.  This  may  be  seen 
from  the  marriage  statistics  of  various  countries.  Accord- 
ing to  the  latest  census,  12,832,044  marriages  were  con- 
tracted in  the  United  States  during  the  period  from 
1887  to  1906. 

1887  .  .  .  483,096  1902  .  .  .  746,733 

1891  .  .  .  562,412  1903  .  .  .  786,132 

1892  .  .  .  577,870  1904  •  •  •  78i»H5 

1893  -  -  -  578>673  1905  •  •  -  804,787 

1894  .  .  .  566,161  1906  .  .  .  853,232 

These  figures  show  that  as  a  result  of  the  crises  during 
1893  and  1894,  the  marriage  rate  declined  by  12,512.  The 
same  phenomenon  recurs  in  1904,  during  which  year  the 
marriage  rate  declined  by  4987.  The  following  table 
shows  marriage  statistics  gathered  in  France: 

1873 — J877.  • .  .299,000  1893 — 1897 288,000 

1878 — 1882. . .  .281,000  1898 — 1902. . .  .296,000 

1883—1887 284,000  1903—1907 306,000 

1888 — 1892 279,000 

The  marriage  rate  attained  its  highest  figure,  321,238, 
during  the  year  1873.  From  that  time  on  the  marriage 
rate  declined  only  to  increase  again  with  times  of  pros- 
perity. In  France  the  highest  marriage  rate  since  1873 
was  attained  in  1907  when  it  reached  314,903.  To  some 
extent  this  increase  was  due  to  a  new  law  that  went  into 
effect  on  June  21,  1907,  by  which  the  legal  formalities 
required  in  order  to  become  married  were  simplified. 
This  increase  was  especially  noticeable  in  the  poorer  dis- 
tricts. The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  mar- 
riages contracted  for  every  thousand  inhabitants  in  vari- 
ous European  countries: 


134 


Marriage  as  a  Means  of  Support 


COUNTRIES 

1871 
to 

1875 

1876 

to 

1880 

1881 
to 
IS85 

1886 
to 
1890 

1891 
to 
1895 

1896 
to 
1900 

1901 
to 

1905 

1907 

German  Empire  .... 
Prussia  

18.84 

18  88 

15.68 

i«?  86 

15.40 

1C    Q2 

1568 

16  7.2 

15-88 
1  6  40 

17.83 
16  86 

16 

16  2 

16.2 

16  4 

Bavaria  

l8  Q2 

I4.6"\ 

I0'y* 

17    O4 

J7    06 

14  76 

16  OQ 

1C  2 

jc  4 

Saxony  

IQ  06 

17.70 

l^.VJ^ 

17  62 

18  64 

17  *>2 

18  76 

16  6 

16  8 

Austria 

18  30 

I  5  ^.2 

15  88 

1  1  4O 

A/O* 
I  ^  76 

1  6  04 

is  8 

is  8 

Hungary 

21   cr 

IQ  ^O 

20  24 

1  7  72 

1  7  Q2 

1  6  05 

17  2 

IQ  6 

Italy  

1C    C4 

15  06 

14  08 

17  64 

14  06 

14  4O 

14  8 

jc  4 

Switzerland  .  .  . 

16  06 

14  QO 

13  80 

14  oo 

14  72 

I  5  5Q 

1C 

1^>'7 
jc  6 

France  

1  6.  06 

jc  j6 

jc  o4 

U48 

MOO 

jc  14 

jc  2 

16 

England  and  Wales  . 
Scotland  

17.08 
14.  Q8 

15-34 
1  1  76 

I5.U 
1  7  76 

14.70 

18  02 

I5.I6 

n  68 

I6.I4 
UQ4 

156 
14 

15-8 
14 

Ireland  

0.72 

9.O4 

8  66 

8  66 

i^.WW 

Q  48 

Q.87 

10.4 

IO.2 

Belgium 

jr   A  A 

J7    Q4 

I  3.  Q4 

14  3.4 

TC  24 

V'W 

16  45 

16  2 

16  2 

Netherlands 

16  64 

15  76 

*d»3P5 

14  28 

1  4  O4 

14  48 

14  88 

1C 

jc  2 

Denmark 

IS  88 

TC     C4 

TC    78 

I  \  Q4 

T  7    84 

14  7Q 

U4 

jc  2 

Norway 

I  J.UVJ 

14  «;8 

M4O 

13  82 

12  76 

12  Q2 

J7    77 

12  4 

^O-* 
II  8 

Sweden      .    ... 

14  O4 

I"!    2O 

12  84 

12  2O 

II  4s. 

12  O4 

II  8 

12 

Finland  

17  68 

jc  72 

14  QO 

14  4O 

iA.<K) 
12  08 

1C    7,4. 

J7 

n  <s 

European  Russia 
excl.  the  Vistula 
province  

IQ.62 

17  62 

1806 

17  Q4 

17.  08 

17.80 

Bulgaria  

18  04 

17.24 

16.07 

.  



Servia  

22.80 

2*,.  7.2 

22.IA 

21.76 

1984 

__ 

_ 

___ 

That  the  marriage  rate  rises  and  sinks  with  the  rise 
and  decline  of  national  prosperity  is  most  strikingly 
noticeable  in  Germany.  The  largest  number  of  mar- 
riages (423,900),  were  contracted  in  Germany  in  1872, 
the  year  after  the  close  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war.  From 
1873  on>  the  marriage  rate  declined  until  in  1879,  tne  year 
when  the  crisis  was  at  its  worst,  it  attained  its  lowest 
figure  (335,133).  Then  it  gradually  increased  again  until 
1890,  a  year  of  prosperity,  to  sink  once  more  in  1892  and 
again  to  increase  with  the  years  of  returning  prosperity 
until  with  the  height  of  prosperity  the  highest  figures 
were  attained  (476,491  in  1900,  and  471-519  in  1899).  The 
next  crisis  brought  another  decline.  In  1902  the  number 
of  marriages  did  not  exceed  457,208  while  in  1906  and 
1907  it  rose  up  again  to  498,900  and  503,964. 

But  in  general  the  statistics  of  most  countries  point  to 
a  decline  of  the  marriage  rate.  The  highest  numbers 
attained  during  the.  seventies  were  attained  only  in  ex- 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  135 

ceptional  instances  at  the  close  of  the  nineties.  But  not 
only  the  earnings  have  a  strong  influence  on  the  mar- 
riage rate,  the  conditions  of  property  have  so  likewise. 
Statistics  from  the  kingdom  of  Wurtemberg  show,  that 
with  the  increase  of  large  estates  the  number  of  married 
men  between  25  and  30  years  of  age  decreases  and  the 
number  of  unmarried  men  between  40  and  50  years  of 
age  increases.  Small  estates  are  favorable  to  the  mar- 
riage rate,  because  they  enable  a  greater  number  of  fam- 
ilies to  maintain  a  decent  though  modest  livelihood,  while 
large  estates  are,  for  obvious  reasons,  unfavorable  to  the 
marriage  rate.  With  the  growing  industrial  develop- 
ment of  a  country,  the  number  of  marriages  in  urban 
trades  and  professions  increases.  The  following  statis- 
tics from  Sweden  during  the  years  1901  to  1904  show  the 
relation  of  marriage  to  occupation : 

Agriculture   per  1000 4.78 

Industry "        "    7.17 

Commerce *'  "    ....  7.75 

Learned   professions  .  .   "  "    ...  .6.33 

All  these  figures  prove  that  not  moral  but  economic 
causes  are  the  determining  factors.  The  number  of  mar- 
riages like  tne  moral  status  of  a  social  group  depend 
upon  its  material  foundation. 

2. — Infanticide  and  Abortion. 

Fear  of  poverty  and  doubts  as  to  whether  it  will  be 
possible  to  bring  up  the  children  suitable  to  their  station 
in  life,  cause  many  women  of  all  classes  to  commit  deeds 
that  are  averse  to  the  laws  of  nature  and  to  the  laws  of 
organized  society  as  well.  Such  deeds  include  the  various 
methods  to  prevent  conception,  and  when  this  has  oc- 
curred nevertheless,  artificial  abortion.  It  would  be  a 
mistake  to  assume  that  such  methods  are  resorted  to 
only  by  frivolous,  unscrupulous  women.  They  are,  on 
the  contrary,  frequently  resorted  to  by  conscientious 
wives,  who  feel  that  they  must  limit  the  number  of  off- 
spring and  rather  submit  to  the  dangers  of  abortion,  than 
to  deny  themselves  to  their  husbands  and  thereby  drive 


136  Marriage  as  a  Means  of  Support 

them  to  the  devious  paths.  Other  women  again  take  this 
step  to  conceal  a  "sin,"  or  because  they  abhor  the  discom- 
forts of  pregnancy,  child-birth  and  motherhood,  or  be- 
cause they  fear  that  their  physical  beauty  will  be  impaired 
and  that  they  will  accordingly  seem  less  attractive  to  their 
husbands  and  to  men  in  general.  These  women  readily 
obtain  medical  and  surgical  aid  at  high  prices. 

Artificial  abortion  seems  to  be  practiced  more  and 
more.  It  was  frequently  practiced  among  the  ancients 
and  is  practiced  to-day  among  both  civilized  nations  and 
savages.  The  old  Greeks  practiced  it  openly,  without  any 
legal  restraint.  Plato  regarded  it  as  within  the  province 
of  the  midwife,  and  Aristotle  permitted  it  to  married 
people  when  a  pregnancy  that  was  not  desired  took 
place.*  According  to  Jules  Ronyer,  the  women  of  Rome 
practiced  abortion  for  several  reasons.  In  the  first  place 
they  wished  to  conceal  the  results  of  their  illigitimate 
relations;  secondly  they  wished  to  indulge  in  uninter- 
rupted excesses,  and  thirdly  they  sought  to  avoid  the 
detrimental  effects  of  pregnancy  and  child-birth  upon 
their  beauty.**  Among  the  romans  a  woman  was  con- 
sidered old  when  she  attained  the  thirthieth  year,  and 
the  women  therefore  shunned  everything  that  was  likely 
to  make  them  age  more  quickly.  During  the  mediaeval 
ages  abortions  were  punishable  by  severe  penalties,  in 
some  instances  even  by  capital  punishment,  and  a  free 
\\oman  who  had  practiced  it  became  a  serf. 

At  the  present  time  abortions  are  practiced  chiefly  in 
Turkey  and  in  the  United  States.  "The  Turks  do  not 
regard  a  foetus  as  being  really  alive  until  after  the  fifth 
month,  and  have  no  scruple  in  causing  its  abortion.  Even 
at  later  stages,  when  the  operation  becomes  criminal,  it 
is  frequently  practiced.  In  1872  at  Contanstinople,  more 
than  three  thousand  cases  of  abortion  were  brought  be- 
fore the  courts  in  a  period  of  ten  months."! 

More  frequently  yet  it  is  practiced  in  the  United  States. 
In  all  the  large  cities  of  the  union  institutions  exist  where 

*Elie  Metchnikoff --The  Nature  of  Mait. 

**Jules  Ronyer,  Etudes  medicales  sur  1'ancienne  Rome.  Paris  1859. 

fElie  Metchnikoff— The  Nature  of  Man. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  137 

women  and  girls  can  go  to  bring  about  premature  birth. 
Mauy  American  newspapers  contain  advertisements  of 
such  places.*  In  some  strata  of  American  society  an 
artificial  abortion  is  discussed  as  openly  as  a  regular  con- 
finement. In  Germany  and  other  European  countries  it 
is  regarded  in  a  different  manner,  and  according  to  Ger- 
man law  both  the  perpetrator  and  the  accomplice  may  be 
punished  by  imprisonment.  Abortion  is  often  followed 
by  the  worst  results ;  not  infrequently  it  results  in  death, 
and  in  many  cases  it  means  the  permanent  destruction 
of  health.  "Dangers  from  the  most  unfavorable  preg- 
nancy and  child-birth  are  less  great  than  from  artificial 
abortions."**  Sterility  is  the  most  frequent  result.  Never- 
theless the  practice  is  becoming  more  frequent  in  Ger- 
many also.  Ine  following  number  of  persons  were  con- 
victed of  criminal  abortion:  From  1882  to  1886,  839; 
from  1897  to  1901-  1565;  from  1902  to  1906,  22236.!  Dur- 
ing recent  years  several  cases  of  criminal  abortions  cre- 
ated a  sensation,  because  distinguished  physicians  and 
prominent  society  women  figured  in  these  cases.  Judg- 
ing by  the  advertisements  in  German  newspapers,  there 
also  is  an  increase  of  those  places  and  institutions  where 
married  and  unmarried  women  are  given  an  opportunity 
to  await  the  results  of  their  wrong-doing  in  absolute 
secrecy. 

The  fear  of  a  too  numerous  progeny  in  consideration  of 
the  economic  status  and  the  cost  of  education  has  caused 
the  introduction  of  preventive  measures  among  entire 
classes  and  nations  and  has  gradually  developed  into  a 
regular  system  that  threatens  to  become  a  public  calam- 
ity. It  is  a  wellknown  fact  that  almost  all  strata  of 
French  society  abide  by  the  custom  of  limiting  their  off- 
spring to  two  children.  Few  civilized  countries  have  as 
high  a  marriage  rate  as  France ;  but  notwithstanding  this 
fact,  in  no  other  country  the  birth  rate  is  as  low  and  the 
increase  of  population  as  gradual.  The  French  bour- 
geoisie, -the  peasantry  and  the  working  class,  all  abide  by 

^According  to  an  official  investigation,  200  persons  were  counted 
in  New  York  who  made  a  profession  of  artificial  abortions. 
*Edw.  Reich — History  of  Abortion  and  its  Dangers. 
•j-Criminal  statistics  of  the  German  Empire  for  the  year  1906, 


138  Marriage  as  a  Means  of  Support 

this  custom.  In  some  parts  of  Germany  the  conditions 
among  the  peasantry  seem  to  have  lead  to  a  similar  state 
of  affairs.  In  a  picturesque  region  in  the  south-western 
part  of  Germany,  a  certain  species  of  tree,  which  furnishes 
an  ingredient  for  an  abortive  remedy,  is  grown  on  every 
farm.  In  another  region  the  peasants  have  long  since 
followed  the  custom  of  limiting  their  offspring  to  two 
children ;  they  do  not  wish  to  divide  up  their  farms. 
Another  noteworthy  fact  is  the  marked  increase  in  the 
publication  and  sale  of  literature  discussing  and  recom- 
mending means  for  optional  sterility.  Of  course,  these 
books  are  always  clothed  in  "scientific"  garb  and  invari- 
ably point  to  the  threatening  danger  of  excess  of  popu- 
lation. 

Besides  the  prevention  of  conception  and  artificial 
abortion,  crime  also  plays  a  part.  In  France  child  ex- 
posure and  infanticide  have  increased  as  a  direct  result 
of  French  civil  law,  according  to  which  it  is  interdicted 
to  investigate  paternity.  The  "Code  civil"  provides  that 
"La  recherche  de  la  paternite  est  enterdite,"  but  "la 
recherche  de  la  maternite  est  admise."  This  law  forbids 
to  search  for  a  child's  father  but  permits  to  search  for 
its  mother.  With  brutal  frankness  it  thus  proclaims  in- 
justice to  the  unfortunate  girl  who  has  been  seduced. 
The  men  of  France  may,  by  the  provision  of  this  law, 
seduce  as  many  girls  and  women  as  they  please ;  they  are 
freed  from  all  responsibility  and  do  not  have  to  con- 
tribute anything  to  the  support  of  their  illegitimate  chil- 
dren. This  law  was .  framed  under  the  pretext  that 
women  must  be  deterred  from  seducing  men.  We  see, 
everywhere  it  is  the  poor,  feeble  man, — although  his  is 
the  strong  sex, — who  never  seduces  but  always  is 
seduced.  The  result  of  this  paragraph  of  the  "Code  civil" 
was  the  framing  of  another  paragraph  which  provides 
that  "L'enfant  concupendant  le  marriage  a  pour  pere  le 
mari"  (the  husband  is  father  to  every  child  conceived 
during  marriage).  While  it  is  forbidden  to  search  after 
a  child's  father,  deceived  husbands  must  regard  children 
as  their  own,  that  have  sprung  from  illicit  relations  their 
wives  may  have  maintained.  We  must  admit  that  the 
French  bourgeoisie  is  at  least  consistent.  Until  now 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  139 

all  attempts  to  repeal  these  obnoxious  laws  have  failed. 
On  the  other  hand  the  French  bourgeoisie  seeks  to  atone 
somewhat  for  the  cruelty  of  preventing  women,  who  have 
been  deceived,  from  seeking  financial  aid  from  the  fathers 
of  their  children,  by  establishing  foundling  institutions. 
Thus  the  new-born  babe  is  deprived  not  only  of  its  father 
but  of  its  mother  as  well.  According  to  the  French  con- 
ception foundlings  are  orphans,  and  the  French  bour- 
geoisie thus  permits  its  illegitimate  children  to  be  reared 
as  "children  of  the  nation"  at  the  expense  of  the  state. 
A  wonderful  institution ! 

Lately  French  methods  have  been  copied  in  Germany. 
The  new  German  civil  law  contains  provisions  in  regard 
to  the  legal  status  of  illegitimate  children,  that  are  in 
contradiction  to  the  more  humane  laws  that  were  in  force 
heretofore.  One  paragraph  states  that  "an  illegitimate 
child  and  its  father  are  not  regarded  as  being  related," 
while  Emperor  Joseph  II  had  already  decreed  that  legiti- 
mate and  illegitimate  children  should  be  equal  before  the 
law?  Another  paragraph  states  that  "an  illegitimate  child 
is  fatherless  if  its  mother  maintained  relations  with  sev- 
eral men  at  the  time  of  conception."  The  child  is  made 
to  suffer  for  its  mother's  frivolousness,  weakness  or  pov- 
erty. Frivolous  fathers  are  not  taken  into  consideration 
by  the  law.  The  law  concerning  illegitimate  children 
furthermore  provides :  "it  is  the  mother's  right  and  duty 
to  care  for  the  person  of  the  illegitimate  child.  The  father 
of  the  illegitimate  child  is  obliged  to  provide  for  same 
until  the  completion  of  its  sixteenth  year,  in  accordance 
with  the  social  status  of  the  mother."  According  to 
former  Prussian  law,  the  seducer  was  obliged  to  provide 
for  the  child  in  accordance  with  his  own  social  status  and 
wealth.  If  the  woman  had  been  seduced  with  the  promise 
of  marriage,  she  was  entitled  to  all  the  rights  of  a 
divorced  wife,  and  in  those  cases  the  illegitimate  children 
were  regarded  as  legitimate  before  the  law.  These  more 
just  and  humane  provisions  have  now  been  dispensed 
with.  The  tendency  of  German  legislation  is  a  retogres- 
sdve  one. 

During  the  period  from  1831  to  1880,  8568  cases  of 
infanticide  were  tried  before  the  French  court  of  assizes. 


140  Marriage  as  a  Means  of  Support 

This  number  increased  from  471  during  the  years  1831 
eo  1835  to  970  during  the  years  1876  to  1880.  During  the 
same  period  1032  cases  of  criminal  abortion  were  tried, 
zoo  of  these  during  the  single  year  1880.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  only  a  small  number  of  the  artificial  abortions 
actually  practiced  ever  come  to  the  notice  of  the  courts. 
As  a  rule  only  such  cases  are  brought  to  public  attention 
that  result  in  severe  illness  or  death.  The  rural  popula- 
tion furnished  75  percent  of  the  infanticides,  and  the 
urban  population  furnished  67  percent  of  criminal  obor- 
tions.  The  women  residing  in  cities  have  more  means  at 
hand  to  prevent  normal  child-birth ;  therefore  the  cases 
of  abortion  were  numerous  and  the  cases  of  infanticide 
relatively  few.  In  the  rural  districts  the  inverse  ratio 
prevails.  In  Germany  the  following  number  of  persons 
were  convicted  of  infanticide:  from  1882  to  1886,  884; 
from  1897  to  1901,  887;  from  1902  to  1906,  745. 

This  is  the  picture  presented  by  present  day  society 
in  regard  to  its  most,  intimate  relations.  It  differs  con- 
siderably from  that  picture  which  is  usually  drawn  for  us 
by  poetic  visionaries,  but  it  at  least  has  the  advantage  of 
being  true.  Yet  the  picture  is  incomplete ;  a  few  charac- 
teristic features  must  still  be  added. 

3. — Education  for  Marriage. 

All  parties  are  agreed  that  at  the  present  time  the 
female  sex  is,  on  an  average,  mentally  inferior  to  the 
male  sex.  Balzac,  who  by  no  means  was  an  admirer  of 
women,  nevertheless  declared,  "a  woman  who  has  ob- 
tained the  education  of  a  man,  indeed  possesses  the  most 
brilliant  and  fruitful  qualities  for  establishing  her  own 
happiness  and  that  of  her  husband."  Goethe,  who  was 
well  acquainted  with  the  types  of  men  and  women  of  his 
day,  uttered  the  following  sharp  remark  in  "The  Years 
of  Travelling  of  William  Meister"  (Confessions  of  a  fair 
soul)  :  "scholarly  women  were  held  up  to  ridicule,  and 
educated  women  were  not  popular  either,  probably  be- 
cause it  was  regarded  as  impolite  to  disgrace  so  many 
ignorant  men."  But  that  does  not  alter  the  fact  that 
women,  as  a  rule,  are  mentally  inferior  to  men.  This 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  141 

difference  is  bound  to  exist,  since  the  mental  status  of  / 
woman  is  but  what  man,  her  master,  has  made  it.    The  I 

education  of  women  has  always  been  pitifully  neglected, 
even  more  than  the  education  of  the  proletariat,  and  even 
at  the  present  time  it  is  insufficient.  In  our  age  the  de- 
sire for  the  exchange  of  ideas  is  a  growing  one  among  all 
classes  of  society,  and  accordingly  we  begin  to  recognize 
the  neglected  mental  training  of  women  as  a  great  mis- 
take, one  from  which  not  only  women,  but  men  also  must 
suffer. 

With  men  education  is  mainly  directed  upon  the  devel- 
opment of  the  intellect;  it  is  supposed  to  sharpen  their 
reasoning  powers,  to  expand  their  knowledge  and  to 
strengthen  their  will-power.  With  women,  especially 
among  the  upper  classes,  education  is  mainly  directed 
upon  the  development  of  their  sentiments ;  it  chiefly 
consists  of  attaining  various  accomplishments  that  only 
tend  to  heighten  their  imaginative  faculty  and  to  increase 
their  nervous  irritability,  such  as  music,  literature,  art 
and  poetry.  That  is  the  greatest  error  in  education  that 
could  possibly  be  committed.  It  shows  that  educatorsf 
have  allowed  themselves  to  be  guided  by  their  prejudices! 
concerning  the  nature  of  woman  and  her  narrow  sphere 
in  life.  The  development  of  sentiment  and  imagination 
in  women  should  not  be  artificially  stimulated  which  only 
increases  the  tendency  to  become  nervous.  With  women, 
as  well  as  with  men,  the  mental  faculties  should  be  devel- 
oped and  they  should  be  acquainted  with  the  practical 
facts  of  life.  It  would  be  the  greatest  advantage  to 
both  sexes  if  women  were  less  sentimental  and  more 
rational ;  if  they  displayed  less  nervousness  and  timidity, 
and  more  courage  and  will-power ;  if  they  possessed 
fewer  accomplishments,  and  a  broader  knowledge  of  the 
world  and  mankind  and  the  natural  forces  of  life.  Until 
the  present  time  the  spiritual  life  of  woman  and  her  sen- 
timents have  been  stimulated  to  the  utmost,  while  her 
intellectual  development  has  been  neglected,  hampered 
and  repressed.  As  a  result  she  literally  suffers  from 
spiritual  and  sentimental  hypertrophy,  which  makes  her 
susceptible  to  all  sorts  of  superstitions  and  miracle- 
frauds,  an  easy  victim  of  religious  and  other  swindles,  a 


142  Marriage  as  a  Means  of  Support 

willing  tool  of  bigotry  and  reaction.  Men  in  their  short- 
sightedness frequently  lament  this  fact;  but  they  do 
nothing  to  change  it,  because  the  great  majority  of  them 
are  still  deeply  entrenched  in  their  own  prejudices.  As 
a  result  of  this  false  education,  women  generally  regard 
the  world  very  differently  from  men,  and  thereby  another 
great  source  of  differences  and  misunderstandings  be- 
tween the  sexes  is  established. 

For  every  man  in  present  day  society,  participation  in 
public  life  is  one  of  the  most  essential  duties ;  that  many 
men  still  fail  to  recognize  this  duty  does  not  alter  the 
fact.  But  an  ever  widening  circle  of  men  has  begun  to 
recognize  that  public  institutions  directly  affect  the  pri- 
vate relations  of  each  individual,  and  that  the  welfare  of 
individuals  and  families  depends  far  more  upon  the 
nature  of  public  institutions  than  upon  personal  qualities 
and  actions.  They  have  begun  to  recognize,  that  even 
supreme  efforts  on  the  part  of  a  single  individual  are 
powerless;  in  combatting  evils  that  are  rooted  in  social 
conditions,  and  influence  his  position  accordingly.  More- 
over the  struggle  for  existence  necessitates  far  greater 
exertions  to-day  than  formerly.  Demands  are  made  upon 
a  man  to-day,  that  require  more  and  more  of  his  time  and 
strength.  But  the  ignorant,  indifferent  woman  is  usually 
incapable  of  comprehending  his  duties  and  interests.  We 
may  even  say  that  the  differentiation  between  man  and 
woman  is  greater  to-day  than  it  was  formerly,  when  con- 
ditions were  more  petty  and  narrow,  and  therefore  more 
within  the  range  of  woman's  understanding.  Occupa- 
tion with  public  affairs  to-day  claims  a  greater  number 
of  men  than  formerly.  This  expands  their  ideas,  but  it 
also  estranges  them  from  their  domestic  circle.  Thereby 
the  woman  feels  neglected,  and  one  more  source  of  differ- 
ences has  been  created.  Only  in  rare  cases  do  men  suc- 
ceed in  making  themselves  understood  by  their  wives  and 
in  convincing  them.  As  a  rule  the  man  holds  the  opinion 
that  his  aims  and  interests  do  not  concern  his  wife,  and 
that  she  is  unable  to  understand  them.  He  does  not  take 
the  trouble  to  instruct  her.  "You  don't  understand  that,'* 
is  the  usual  reply  when  a  woman  complains  to  her  hus- 
band that  he  is  neglecting  her.  The  lack  of  understand- 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  143 

ing  on  the  part  of  the  women  is  still  heightened  by  the 
lack  of  common  sense  on  the  part  of  the  men.  Among 
the  proletariat  the  relation  between  husband  and  wife  is 
more  favorable,  when  both  recognize  that  they  must  fol- 
low the  same  path,  since  one,  and  one  only  leads  to  a  bet- 
ter future  for  them  and  their  children :  the  complete  reor- 
ganization of  society  that  will  make  all  men  and  women 
free.  As  this  recognition  spreads  among  the  women  of 
the  proletariat,  their  wedded  life  becomes  idealized  in 
spite  of  misery  and  want.  For  now  both  husband  and 
wife  have  a  common  aim  to  strive  for,  and  their  common 
struggle  furnishes  an  inexhaustible  source  of  inspiration 
in  exchange  of  opinions.  The  number  of  proletarian 
women  who  have  awakened  to  this  recognition  is  grow- 
ing with  each  year.  Here  a  movement  is  expanding  that 
will  be  of  vital  importance  to  the  future  of  mankind. 

In  other  marriages  the  differences  of  education  and 
conceptions,  that  were  overlooked  in  the  beginning  while 
passion  was  still  strong,  become  more  and  more  notice- 
able with  the  advancing  years.  But  as  sexual  passion 
decreases,  it  ought  to  be  replaced  by  mental  conformity. 
Quite  disregarding  the  fact  whether  or  not  a  man  recog- 
nizes that  he  has  social  and  civic  duties,  and  whether  or 
not  he  fulfills  these  duties,  his  business  or  profession 
alone  suffices  to  keep  him  in  constant  touch  with  the  out- 
side world,  and  to  create  an  intellectual  atmosphere  about 
him  that  broadens  his  views.  Contrary  to  the  woman, 
he  is  usually  in  a  state  of  intellectual  moulting;  but 
domestic  activities  require  the  woman's  time  and  atten- 
tion from  morning  till  night,  and  being  deprived  of  op- 
portunity for  mental  development,  she  is  apt  to  become 
dull  and  mentally  stunted. 

This  domestic  misery  in  which  the  majority  of  wives  in 
present  day  society  are  obliged  to  .Uve,  has  been  truly 
pictured  by  Gerhard  v.  Amyntor  in  his  book  on  "A  Com- 
mentary to  the  Book  of  Life."  In  the  chapter  on  "Fatal 
Stings"  he  says :  "It  is  not  the  terrible  occurrences  that 
no  one  is  spared,  —  a  husband's  death,  the  moral  ruin  of 
a  beloved  child,  long,  torturing  illness,  or  the  shattering 
of  a  fondly  nourished  hope,  —  it  is  none  of  these  that 
undermine  the  woman's  health  and  strength,  but  the  little 


144  Marriage  as  a  Means  of  Support 

daily  recurring,  body  and  soul  devouring  cares.  How 
many  millions  of  good  housewives  have  cooked  and 
scrubbed  their  love  of  life  away !  How  many  have  sacri- 
ficed their  rosy  cheeks  and  their  dimples  in  domestic  ser- 
vice, until  they  became  wrinkled,  withered,  broken  mum- 
mies. The  everlasting  question:  'what  shall  I  cook  to- 
day/ the  ever  recurring  necessity  of  sweeping  and  dust- 
ing and  scrubbing  and  dish-washing,  is  the  steadily  fall- 
ing drop  that  slowly  but  surely  wears  out  her  body  and 
mind.  The  cooking  stove  is  the  place  where  accounts  are 
sadly  balanced  between  income  and  expense,  and  where 
the  most  oppressing  observations  are  made  concerning 
the  increased  cost  of  living  and  the  growing  difficulty  in 
making  both  ends  meet.  Upon  the  flaming  altar  where 
the  pots  are  boiling,  youth  and  freedom  from  care,  beauty 
and  light-heartedness  are  being  sacrificed.  In  the  old 
cook  whose  eyes  are  dim  and  whose  back  is  bent  with 
toil,  no  one  would  recognize  the  blushing  bride  of  yore, 
beautiful,  merry  and  modestly  coquettish  in  the  finery  of 
her  bridal  garb. — To  the  ancients  the  hearth  was  sacred ; 
beside  the  hearth  they  erected  their  lares  and  household- 
gods.  Let  us  also  hold  the  hearth  sacred,  where  the  con- 
scientious German  housewife  slowly  sacrifices  her  life, 
to  keep  the  home  comfortable,  the  table  well  supplied, 
and  the  family  healthy."  That  is  the  only  consolation 
that  bourgeois  society  is  able  to  offer  those  women  who 
slowly  perish  as  a  result  of  the  present  order! 

Those  women  who  enjoy  a  freer  position  as  a  result 
of  their  more  favored  social  circumstances,  usually  have 
a  narrow,  superficial  education  that  is  manifested  in  con- 
nection with  inherited,  female  characteristics.  Most  of 
these  women  are  interested  only  in  external  appearances ; 
dress  and  personal  adornment  are  their  chief  concern,  and 
the  satisfaction  of  their  depraved  tastes  and  their  unbri- 
dled passions,  form  their  object  in  life.  They  are  not 
interested  much  in  the  children  and  their  education ;  that 
would  mean  too  much  trouble  and  annoyance.  Therefore 
they  willingly  turn  over  their  children  to  nurses  and  gov- 
ernesses and  later  on  to  boarding-schools.  At  the  most 
they  regard  it  as  their  duty  to  make  silly  doll-women  of 
their  daughters,  and  superficial,  extravagant  dandies  of 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  145 

their  sons.  This  class  of  young  men,  who  regard  idleness 
and  extravagance  as  a  profession,  furnishes  the  seducers 
of  the  daughters  of  the  people. 

The  conditions  described  above  have  lead  to  a  number 
of  traits  of  character  peculiar  to  women,  that  are  more 
fully  developed  from  generation  to  generation.  Men  seem 
to  find  satisfaction  in  ridiculing  these  traits,  but  they  for- 
get that  they  themselves  are  to  blame  for  them.  The 
following  are  some  of  these  frequently  condemned  female 
traits  of  character :  talkativeness  and  scandal-mongering ; 
the  inclination  to  discuss  the  most  insignificant  things  at 
the  greatest  length ;  the  exaggerated  interest  in  outward 
display;  the  love  of  dress  and  coquetry;  envy  and  jealousy 
toward  the  members  of  her  sex,  and  the  tendency  of 
being  dishonest  and  hypocritical.  These  traits  of  char- 
acter usually  manifest  themselves  with  the  female  sex  at 
an  early  age;  they  are  general  and  only  differ  in  degree. 
These  traits  have  developed  under  the  pressure  of  social 
conditions,  and  they  have  been  further  developed  by 
heredity,  example  and  education.  One  who  has  been 
brought  up  unwisely  is  not  likely  to  bring  up  others 
wisely. 

In  order  to  understand  the  origin  and  development  of 
traits  of  character  common  to  an  entire  sex  or  to  an  entire 
people,  we  must  follow  the  same  method  that  modern 
scientists  apply  to  understand  the  origin  and  develop- 
ment of  living  beings  and  their  characteristics.  The  ma- 
terial conditions  of  life  to  a  great  extent  imprint  upon 
every  living  being  its  traits  of  character.  It  is  compelled 
to  adapt  itself  to  these  existing  material  conditions,  until 
the  adaptation  becomes  its  nature. 

Human  beings  form  no  exception  to  that  which  holds 
true  for  all  living  beings  throughout  nature.  Man  is  not 
exempt  from  natural  laws.  Viewed  physiologically,  he  is 
merely  the  most  highly  developed  animal.  Of  course, 
many  persons  refuse  to  admit  this.  Thousands  of  years 
ago  ancient  peoples,  although  they  knew  nothing  of 
modern  science,  held  more  rational  views  in  regard  to 
many  human  problems,  than  a  great  many  of  our  con- 
temporaries, and,  what  is  more  noteworthy  still,  their 
views  that  were  based  on  experience,  were  put  into  prac- 


146  Marriage  as  a  Means  of  Support 

tice.  We  praise  and  admire  the  strength  and  beauty  of 
the  men  and  women  of  ancient  Greece ;  but  we  forget  that 
it  was  not  the  climate  of  this  beautiful  country  that  had 
such  a  favorable  influence  upon  the  nature  and  develop- 
ment of  its  population,  but  the  educational  maxims  that 
were  consistently  carried  out  by  the  state,  and  that  were 
destined  to  combine  beauty,  strength  and  skill  with  men- 
tal sharpness  and  vigor.  Indeed  the  mental  develop- 
ment of  woman  was  neglected  even  then,  but  not  so  her 
physical  development.*  In  Sparta  where  physical  cul- 
ture of  both  sexes  was  most  extensively  practiced,  boys 
and  girls  went  about  naked  until  the  age  of  puberty,  and 
together  they  joined  in  physical  exercises,  games  and 
wrestling-matches.  The  display  of  the  nude  human  body, 
the  natural  treatment  of  natural  things,  prevented  the 
extreme  sexual  irritation  that  is  mainly  caused  by  an 
artificial  separation  of  the  sexes  from  childhood  on.  The 
body  of  one  sex  was  no  mystery  to  the  other.  No  dally- 
ing with  ambiguities  could  arise.  Nature  was  regarded 
as  such.  Each  sex  took  pleasure  in  the  beauty  of  the 
other. 

To  a  natural,  untrammeled  relation  of  the  sexes  must 
mankind  return;  we  must  cast  aside  the  unsound  spir- 
itualistic conceptions  concerning  human  affairs  and  cre- 
ate methods  of  education  that  shall  bring  about  a  phys- 
ical and  mental  regeneration.  The  prevailing  concep- 
tions in  regard  to  education,  especially  the  education  of 
women,  are  still  exceedingly  reactionary.  That  a  woman 
should  possess  such  qualities  of  character  as  strength, 
courage  and  determination,  is  decried  as  unwomanly,  and 
yet  no  one  can  deny  that  by  means  of  such  qualities  she 
will  be  better  enabled  to  protect  herself.  But  her  phys- 
ical development  is  hampered,  just  like  her  mental 
development.  This  is  due  in  no  small  degree  to  the 
irrational  mode  of  dress.  Woman's  dress  not  only  inter- 
feres with  her  physical  development,  it  frequently  does 
her  direct  bodily  harm;  and  yet  there  are  few,  even 

*Plato.  in  "The  State",  demands  that  women  should  be  given  an 
education  similar  to  men.  and  Aristoteles  in  "Politics"  declares  as  a 
fundamental  principle  of  education :  "iirst  let  the  body  be  developed 
and  then  the  mind. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  147 

among  physicians,  who  dare  to  oppose  it.  Fear  of  dis- 
pleasing the  patient  causes  them  to  be  silent  or  even  to 
flatter  her  follies.  The  modern  style  of  dress  prevents 
women  from  freely  exercising  their  strength,  hampers 
their  physical  development,  and  creates  a  feeling  of 
helplessness  in  them.  Moreover,  woman's  dress  endan- 
gers the  health  of  her  environment,  for  at  home  and  on 
the  street  she  is  a  walking  generator  of  dust. 

The  physical  and  intellectual  development  of  women 
is  furthermore  severely  hampered  by  a  rigorous  separa- 
tion of  the  sexes  in  school  and  in  social  intercourse,  that 
is  quite  in  accordance  with  the  spiritualistic  conceptions 
implanted  by  Christianity,  and  is  still  sadly  prevalent 
among  us.  The  woman  who  is  given  no  opportunity  to 
develop  her  abilities  and  talents,  who  is  maintained  within 
a  narrow  sphere  of  ideas,  and  rarely  permitted  to  asso- 
ciate with  members  of  the  other  sex,  cannot  rise  above 
the  commonplace  and  trivial.  For  her  ideas  are  centered 
in  the  occurrences  of  her  immediate  environment.  Ver- 
bose conversations  over  a  mere  nothingness  and  the  ten- 
dency to  gossip  are  fostered  by  this  narrow  life,  since  the 
mental  activities  that  reside  in  every  human  being  must 
find  expression  somewhere.  Men  are  frequently  griev- 
ously annoyed  and  driven  to  despair  by  these  qualities 
which  they  roundly  condemn,  without  pausing  to  con- 
sider that  they,  "the  lords  of  creation,"  are  chiefly  to 
blame  for  them.  During  recent  years  numerous  attempts 
have  been  made  to  introduce  more  rational  conceptions 
of  life;  but  they  are  merely  a  beginning,  and  until  now 
have  been  confined  to  a  very  small  portion  of  society. 

4. — The  Misery  of  Present  Day  Marriages. 

As  a  result  of  our  social  and  sexual  relations,  woman  is 
directed  toward  marriage  by  every  fibre  of  her  existence, 
and  naturally  marriage  constitutes  a  chief  topic  of  her 
conversation  and  thought.  As  woman  is  physically 
weaker  than  man,  and  is  subjected  to  him  by  custom  and 
law,  her  tongue  is  her  chief  weapon  to  be  used  against 
him,  and  she  naturally  makes  a  liberal  use  of  this  weapon. 
In  the  same  way  her  much  berated  love  of  dress  and  per- 


148  Marriage  as  a  Means  of  Support 

sonal  adornment  can  be  explained,  that  leads  to  increas- 
ingly eccentric  follies  of  fashion  and  often  causes  finan- 
cial troubles  and  unpleasantness  to  fathers  and  husbands. 
To  man,  woman  has  chiefly  been  an  object  of  enjoyment. 
Being  socially  and  economically  dependent,  she  must 
regard  marriage  as  a  means  of  support,  and  thus  becomes 
subservient  to  man,  becomes  his  property.  Her  position 
is  rendered  more  unfavorable  still  by  the  fact  that  the 
number  of  women  usually  exceeds  the  number  of  men ; 
we  will  return  to  this  phase  of  the  question  later  on. — This 
disproportion  increases  the  competition  of  women  among 
themselves,  all  the  more  so  because,  for  numerous 
reasons,  many  men  fail  to  marry.  Woman  is  therefore 
compelled  to  enhance  her  personal  charms,  in  order  to 
compete  with  the  members  of  her  own  sex  in  the  struggle 
for  the  possession  of  a  man.  When  we  consider  that  this 
disproportion  has  existed  through  many  generations,  it 
is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  these  charactecistics  have 
gradually  assumed  their  present,  extreme  form.  We 
must  consider  moreover  that  at  no  time  the  competition 
among  women  for  the  possession  of  man  was  as  severe 
as  it  is  at  present,  owing  to  causes,  some  of  which  have 
already  been,  and  others  that  still  are  to  be  enumerated. 
The  increasing  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  decent  livelihood 
also  directs  woman  more  than  ever  to  marriage  as  a 
means  of  support. 

Men  do  not  object  to  these  conditions,  since  they  are 
favorable  to  them.  It  flatters  their  vanity  and  serves 
their  interest  to  play  the  part  of  the  ruler,  and  as  all 
rulers  they  are  not  easily  accessible  to  reason.  It  is  all 
the  more  important  therefore  that  women  themselves 
should  strive  to  bring  about  conditions  that  will  liberate 
them  from  their  present,  degraded  position.  Women  can 
no  more  rely  upon  the  aid  of  men,  than  the  workers  can 
rely  upon  the  aid  of  the  bourgeoisie. 

When  we  furthermore  consider  what  traits  of  character 
are  developed  by  competition  along  other  lines,  how,  for 
instance,  industrial  competition  leads  to  hatred,  envy  and 
calumny,  and  how  the  competitors  resort  to  the  basest 
means,  we  find  an  explanation  for  the  fact  that  similar 
traits  of  character  have  been  developed  in  women  by  their 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  149 

competition  for  the  possession  of  a  man.  It  is  due  to  this 
permanent  competition  that  women,  as  a  rule,  cannot  get 
along  as  well  with  one  another  as  men  can ;  that  even 
intimate  friends  are  easily  led  to  quarrel  when  the  favor 
of  a  man  enters  into  consideration.  This  competition 
also  explains  what  may  be  frequently  observed,  that  when 
two  women  meet,  even  though  they  are  utter  strangers 
to  one  another,  they  regard  each  other  in  a  hostile  way. 
With  a  single  glance  they  have  summed  up  each  other's 
shortcomings  in  the  manner  and  style  of  their  clothes, 
and  in  the  looks  of  each  the  verdict  may  be  read :  "I  am 
better  dressed  than  you  are  and  am  better  able  to  attract 
attention  to  myself." 

On  the  other  hand  woman  is  by  nature  more  impulsive 
than  man.  She  is  less  given  to  reflection,  is  more  unselfish 
and  naive,  and  is  more  controlled  by  passion.  These 
traits  of  character  are  expressed  in  their  most  beautiful 
form  by  the  unselfish  self-sacrifice  with  which  she  serves 
her  children  and  others  who  are  near  and  dear  to  her  and 
cares  for  them  during  illness.  But  when  angered,  her  im- 
passionate  nature  manifests  itself  in  its  ugliest  form.  Yet 
the  fact  remains  that  both  good  and  evil  qualities  are  fos- 
tered, hampered  or  transformed,  by  the  social  position. 
The  same  propensity  that  may  be  harmful  under  unfavor- 
able circumstances  may,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
become  a  source  of  happiness  to  oneself  and  others. 
Fourier  has  ably  shown  that  the  same  human  propensities 
may,  under  different  circumstances,  lead  to  opposite 
results.* 

Beside  the  improper  mental  education,  the  improper  or 
insufficient  physical  education  in  regard  to  the  purposes 
of  nature,  remains  to  be  considered.  All  physicians  are 
agreed  that  woman's  education  for  her  profession  of 
motherhood  is  almost  entirely  neglected.  "Soldiers  are 
trained  in  the  use  of  their  weapons,  and  mechanics  in  the 
use  of  their  tools.  Every  profession  requires  preliminary 
study.  Even  the  monk  has  his  noviceship.  Only  the 


*A.  Bebel— "Charles  Fourier,  His  Life  and  His  Theories."    Stutt- 
gart, 1907.    T.  H.  W.  Dietz. 


150  Marriage  as  a  Means  of  Support 

woman  is  not  educated  for  her  serious  maternal  duties".* 
Nine  tenths  of  all  maidens  who  are  given  an  opportunity 
to  marry,  enter  matrimony  in  complete  ignorance  of 
motherhood  and  its  duties.  The  unpardonable  prudery 
that  prevents  mothers  from  speaking  to  their  grown 
daughters  about  the  important  functions  of  sex,  leaves 
them  in  a  state  of  densest  ignorance  concerning  their 
duties  to  their  husbands  and  to  themselves.  The  entrance 
into  marriage  means  to  most  women  entrance  into  an 
utterly  strange  world.  Their  conceptions  of  marriage 
are  purely  imaginative,  drawn  from  novels  of  doubtful 
value,  and  are  usually  very  foreign  to  reality.**  Another 
source  of  differences  may  be  found  in  the  lack  of  practical 
knowledge  of  housekeeping  that  is  still  quite  essential  in 
present  day  marriage,  though  women  have  been  relieved 
of  many  domestic  activities  that  were  formerly  inevitable. 
Some  women  are  deplorably  ignorant  of  household  duties 
because  they  consider  themselves  superior  to  such  work 
and  regard  it  as  a  task  for  servants  only.  Others,  daugh- 
ters of  the  proletariat,  are  equaly  ignorant,  because  the 
struggle  for  existence  compelled  them  to  toil  in  the  fac- 
tory from  morning  until  night,  and  they  found  no  time  to 
prepare  for  their  future  profession  of  housekeeper.  It 
becomes  more  and  more  evident  that  the  trend  of  devel- 
opment makes  individual  housekeeping  unpractical,  and 
that  it  can  be  maintained  only  by  an  irrational  sacrifice 
of  time  and  money. 

*Irma  v.   Troll-Borostyani — "The  Mission  of  our  Century.     A 
Study  of  the  Woman  Question." 

**In  "Les  Femmes  qui  tuent  et  les  femmes  qui  votent,"  Alexander 
Dumas,  jr.,  relates  that  an  eminent  Catholic  clergyman  had  told  him 
that  among  hundred  of  his  former  female  pupils  who  had  become 
married,,  at  least  eighty  came  to  him  after  a  few  months  had  elapsed 
and  told  him  that  marriage  was  a  disappointment  to  them  and  that 
they  regretted  having  marrie.d.  That  seems  very  plausible  indeed. 
The.  French  bourgeoisie  find  it  compatible  with  their  conscience  to 
have  their  daughters  reared  in  convents.  They  are  influenced  by  the 
assumption  that  an  ignorant  woman  is  more  easily  guided  than  an 
enlightened  one.  Conflicts  and  disappointments  in  marriage  are  the 
inevitable  result.  Laboulaye  even  frankly  advises  to  maintain  tlu 
women  in  moderate  ignorance,  for  "notre  empire  est  detruit  si 
rhcmme  est  reconnu."  (Our  rule  will  be  destroyed  if  man  is 
recognized.) 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  151 

There  is  still  another  cause  that  to  many  men  destroys 
the  purpose  of  marriage:  the  physical  enfeeblement  of 
women.  The  food  we  eat,  the  manner  in  which  we  live, 
the  conditions  of  our  work  and  the  character  of  our 
amusements,  all  tend  to  act  more  destructively  than  favor- 
ably upon  our  physical  condition.  Rightly  is  our  age 
termed  a  nervous  age.  But  nervousness  leads  to  physical 
degeneration.  Anaemia  and  nervousness  exist  in  an 
especially  marked  degree  among  women.  This  physical 
degeneration  is  fast  becoming  a  social  calamity,  and  if  it 
would  continue  to  exist  for  several  generations  more, 
without  our  being  able  to  procure  more  normal  conditions 
of  development,  it  would  ultimately  lead  to  race 
destruction.*  . 

The  female  organism  requires  special  care  in  considera- 
tion of  its  special  sexual  functions.  It  requires  good  and 
sufficient  nourishment  and  at  certain  periods  it  requires 
rest.  For  the  great  majority  of  women  such  care  does 
not  exist,  nor  can  it  be  obtained  under  present-day  con- 
ditions. Women  have  so  accustomed  themselves  to  self- 
denial  that  many  women  consider  it  a  matrimonial  duty 
to  give  their  husbands  the  best  morsels  and  to  content 
themselves  with  insufficient  food.  It  also  frequently  hap- 
pens that  the  boys  of  a  family  are  better  nourished  than 
the  girls.  It  is  generally  assumed  that  women  can  con- 
tent themselves  with  poorer  and  less  nourishment  than 
men.  Young  girls  are  therefore  often  a  sad  sight  to  pro- 
fessional authorities  on  hygiene  and  physical  culture.** 
A  great  number  of  our  young  women  are  weak,  anaemic, 
and  extremely  nervous.  The  results  are  suffering  during 
menstruation  and  diseases  of  the  sexual  organs  that  some- 
times make  it  dangerous  or  impossible  to  give  birth  to 
children  or  to  nurse  them.  "If  the  degeneration  of  our 

^Softening  of  the  brain  has  increased  more  rapidly  among  women 
than  among  men.  Among  every  hundred  patients  admitted  to  asy- 
lums in  Prussia  there  were  cases  of  softening  of  the  brain : 

1876—1879 17.0        3.7  1895—1897 18.5        7.6 

1880—1891 17.3        5.4  1898—1901 16.2        7.5 

1892—1894 17.7        6.8 

**Further  details  on  this  subject  may  be  found  in  "The  Book  of 
Women,"  by  Mrs.  H.  S.  Adams,  M.  D.,  Stuttgart. 


152  Marriage  as  a  Means  of  Support 

women  continues  to  go  on  in  the  same  manner  as  up  to 
the  present,  it  will  become  doubtful  whether  civilized  man 
may  still  be  classified  with  the  mammals."*  Instead  of 
being  married  to  a  healthy,  cheerful  companion,  a  capable 
mother,  a  wife  attending  to  her  domestic  duties,  the  man 
is  burdened  with  a  sickly,  nervous  woman  who  cannot 
endure  the  slightest  draught  or  the  least  noise  and  re- 
quires the  constant  attendance  of  a  physician.  We  need 
not  dwell  longer  on  this  subject.  Everyone  knows  of  a 
number  of  such  cases  among  his  own  friends  and 
relatives. 

Experienced  physicians  assert  that  the  majority  of  mar- 
ried women,  especially  in  the  cities,  are  in  a  more  or  less 
abnormal,  physical  condition.'  According  to  the  degree 
of  the  ailment  and  the  characters  of  husband  and  wife, 
such  marriages  must  be  more  or  less  unfortunate.  In 
accordance  with  public  opinion  they  entitle  the  men  to 
take  liberties  outside  of  their  matrimonial  relations,  and 
the  knowledge  of  this  fact  must  heighten  the  misery  of 
the  wives.  Sometimes  the  sexual  requirements  of  hus- 
band and  wife  also  differ  widely  and  give  rise  to  profound 
disharmonies/yet  the  much  desired  separation  is  not  pos- 
sible. 

In  connection  with  this,  the  truth  must  not  be  con- 
cealed that  in  a  great  many  cases  the  men  are  respons- 
ible for  the  severe  physical  sufferings  that  befall 
their  wives  in  marriage  ,  .  As  a  result  of  their  prof- 
ligate lives,  many  men  suffer  from  chronic  sexual  dis- 
eases that  they  frequently  treat  lightly,  because  they 
do  not  cause  them  much  trouble.  But  during  sexual  in- 
tercourse with  their  wives,  these  fall  victims  to  severe 
abdominal  diseases  that  set  in  shortly  after  marriage  and 
frequently  result  in  sterility.  Usually  the  unfortunate 
woman  is  ignorant  of  the  true  cause  of  the  disease  that 
mars  her  life  and  destroys  the  purpose  of  marriage,  and 
reproaches  herself  or  is  reproached  for  the  condition  that 
her  husband  has  caused.  Many  a  blooming  young 
woman  becomes  a  chronic  invalid  after  she  has  barely 
entered  marriage,  —  neither  she  nor  her  relatives  are 

*Dr.  F.  B.  Simon,  "The  Care  of  the  Health  of  Women." 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  153 

able  to  explain  her  condition,  and  the  physican  must 
maintain  silence.  Recent  investigations  have  shown  that 
childless  marriages  are  frequently  due  to  sexual  diseases 
of  men;  while  formerly  the  lords  of  creation  maintained 
the  convenient  theory  that  the  woman  was  always  to 
blame  when  their  marriages  remained  childless.* 

Numerous  are  the  causes  that  prevent  present  day 
marriage  from  being  what  it  ought  to  be.  It  is  therefore 
a  recommendation  of  doubtful  value  when  even  learned 
men  seek  to  oppose  the  woman  movement  by  pointing 
out  to  woman  that  marriage  is  their  true  vocation.  As 
a  result  of  our  social  conditions  marriage  has  become  a 
carricature  foreign  to  its  true  purposes. 


CHAPTER   XI. 
The  Chances  of  Matrimony. 

i. — The  Numerical  Proportion  of  the  Sexes. 

The  usual  advice  to  women  to  seek  their  salvation  in 
marriage,  this  being  their  true  profession,  is  thoughtlessly 
approved  of  by  the  vast  majority  of  men.  But  it  seems 
like  mockery,  that  many  of  those  who  give  such  advice 
and  of  those  who  applaud  it,  refrain  from  marrying 
themselves.  Schopenhauer,  the  philosopher,  has  only 
the  conception  of  a  philistine  concerning  woman  and 
her  position.  He  says:  "woman  is  not  called  upon  to 
perform  great  tasks.  Her  characteristic  is  not  doing  but 
suffering.  She  pays  her  debt  to  life  by  the  throes  of 
child-birth,  care  of  her  child  and  submissiveness  to  her 
husband.  The  supreme  expressions  of  vitality  and  per- 
ception are  denied  her.  Her  life  should  be  more  tran- 
quil and  insignificant  than  man's  life.  Woman  is  called 
upon  to  be  the  nurse  and  educator  of  childhood  because 
she  is  childish  herself;  because  throughout  life  she  re- 

*Dr.  F.  B.  Simon  discusses  this  subject  and  the  analogous  subject, 
why  so  many  young  women  become  ill  after  marriage  without  being 
able  to  account  for  it,  at  length.  His  book  is  a  glaring  reflection 
upon  the  wrongdoings  and  vices  of  men. 


154  Tne  Chances  of  Matrimony 

mains  a  big  child,  a  sort  of  intermediary  stage  between 
child  and  man,  the  true  human  being.  .  .  .  Girls  should 
be  reared  to  be  domestic  and  submissive.  .  .  .  Women 
are  the  most  thoroughgoing,  incurable  philistines." 

The  work  by  Lombroso  and  Ferrero,  "Woman  as  a 
Criminal  and  Prostitute",  is  also  written  in  the  spirit  of 
Schopenhauer.  We  have  never  met  with  an  equally 
extensive  scientific  book,  —  it  consists  of  590  pages,  — 
that  contains  so  little  convincing  material  in  regard  to 
the  subject  it  deals  with.  The  statistics  from  which  the 
most  daring  conclusions  are  drawn,  are  very  inadequate. 
Sometimes  a  dozen  cases  have  sufficed  the  author  to  form 
a  weighty  opinion.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the 
material  contained  in  the  book  which  may  be  regarded 
as  the  most  trustworthy  has  been  furnished  by  a  woman, 
Dr.  Mrs.  Tarnowskaya.  The  influences  of  social  con- 
ditions and  social  development  are  almost  entirely  dis- 
regarded. All  phenomena  are  judged  from  a  narrow 
physiological  and  psychological  point  of  view  arrd  much 
ethnological  information  concerning  various  peoples — 
is  interwoven  with  the  argumentation,  without  any 
attempt  being  made  to  investigate  the  nature  of  this  in- 
formation. According  to  the  authors,  as  according  to 
Schopenhauer,  woman  is  a  big  child,  an  incarnate  liar, 
weak  in  her  judgment,  fickle  in  love,  incapable  of  any 
heroic  deed.  The  inferiority  of  woman, — so  they  claim, — 
has  been  proven  by  a  great  many  physical  differences  and 
charecteristics.  "Woman's  love  is,  at  the  bottom,  noth- 
ing but  a  secondary  character  of  motherhood.  All  the 
sentiments  of  affection  that  bind  a  woman  to  a  man  are 
not  derived  from  the  sexual  impulse  but  from  instincts  of 
devotion  and  submission  acquired  by  adaptation."  But 
how  these  instincts  were  acquired  the  authors  fail  to 
examine.  If  they  did,  it  would  imply  an  investigation  of 
the  social  position  of  woman  during  thousands  of  years 
which  has  made  her  what  she  is  to-day.  The  authors 
describe  the  dependence  and  enslavement  of  woman 
among  different  nations  and  during  various  periods  of 
civilization,  but  being  blinded  by  a  narrow  conception  of 
the  Darwinian  theory,  they  trace  everything  to  physiol- 
ogical causes,  and  disregard  the  social  and  economic 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  155 

causes  that  have  had  the  strongest  influence  on  woman's 
physiological  and  psychological  development. 

Among  other  things  the  authors  discuss  the  vanity  of 
woman  and  express  the  view  that  among  people  at  a  low 
stage  of  development  men  are  the  vain  sex,  which  may 
be  observed  even  to-day  on  the  Hebrides,  Madagascar 
and  among  the  tribes  about  the  Orinoco  river,  as  also  on 
many  islands  of  the  Polynesian  Archipelago  and  among 
a  number  of  African  and  South  Sea  Island  tribes ;  while 
among  nations  of  high  stage  of  development,  women 
are  the  vain  sex.  But  why  is  this  so?  The  answer  is 
simple.  Among  peoples  at  a  low  stage  of  development, 
matriarchal  conditions  prevail  or  have  been  abandoned 
but  recently.  Here  woman's  position  is  such  that  she  is 
relieved  of  the  necessity  of  wooing  man.  The  man  woos 
her,  and  for  this  purpose  he  adorns  himself,  he  becomes 
vain.  Among  peoples  at  a  higher  stage  of  development, 
especially  among  all  civilized  nations,  man  does  not  woo 
woman,  but  woman  woos  man.  It  rarely  occurs  that 
woman  takes  the  initiative  and  literally  offers  herself  to 
a  man ;  modesty  forbids  that.  But  the  offer  nevertheless 
is  made  by  manner  and  dress,  the  luxury  of  her  personal 
adornment  and  her  coquetry.  Such  conduct  is  forced 
upon  her  by  the  fact  that  there  are  more  women  that  men 
and  by  the  social  necessity  of  regarding  marriage  as  a 
means  of  support  and  as  the  only  institution  by  means  of 
which  she  may  satisfy  her  sexual  impulse  and  obtain 
social  recognition.  Here  again  we  find  purely  economic 
and  social  causes  bringing  forth  qualities,  now  in  the  man 
and  now  in  the  woman,  that  we  are  accustomed  to  regard 
as  quite  independent  of  social  and  economic  causes.  From 
this  we  may  draw  the  conclusion  that  when  society  has 
reached  a  state  of  development  in  which  every  form  of 
dependence  of  one  sex  upon  the  other  will  cease,  vanity 
and  the  follies  of  fashion  will  disappear  as  will  many  other 
vices  that  we  deem  ineradicable  to-day,  because  we  be- 
lieve them  to  be  inherent  in  human  nature. 

In  regard  to  Schopenhauer  it  must  be  said  that  he,  as  a 
philosopher,  is  as  biased  in  his  judgment  of  women  as 
the  majority  of  our  anthropologists  and  medical  men  who 


156  The  Chances  of  Matrimony 

regard  her  only  as  a  sex  being,  never  as  a  social  being. 
Schopenhauer  had  never  been  married.  He  failed  to  con- 
tribute his  share  that  one  more  woman  might  fulfill  the 
purpose  in  life  that  he  prescribed  to  women.  This  leads 
us  to  another,  no  more  pleasant  phase  of  the  question. 

It  is  generally  known  that  many  women  remain  unmar- 
ried because  they  are  given  no  opportunity  to  become 
married.  Custom  forbids  the  woman  to  offer  her- 
self. She  must  allow  herself  to  be  chosen ;  she 
may  not  choose.  If  she  is  not  chosen  she  must 
join  that  great  army  of  unfortunate  women  who 
have  missed  their  purpose  in  life  and  who  are  frequently 
subjected  to  a  life  of  poverty  and  want,  sometimes  made 
more  bitter  still  by  ridicule.  But  what  causes  the  numer- 
ical disproportion  of  the  sexes?  Many  are  quick  to  reply : 
too  many  girls  are  born.  The  persons  who  make  this 
statement  are  misinformed,  as  we  shall  see.  Others  draw 
the  conclusion  that  if  women  are  in  the  majority  in  most 
civilized  countries,  polygamy  ought  to  be  permitted.  But 
polygamy  is  not  only  averse  to  our  customs,  it  also  entails 
the  degradation  of  woman ;  although  that  did  not  prevent 
Schopenhauer  from  asserting  that  "to  the  female  sex  in 
general  polygamy  is  a  boon."  Many  men  do  not  marry  be- 
cause they  believe  that  they  are  unable  to  support  one 
woman  and  the  children  who  are  likely  to  be  born  accord- 
ing to  their  station  in  life.  Only  few  men  are  able  to 
support  two  women,  and  among  these,  many  do  have 
two  or  several  wives:  one  legitimate  wife,  and  one  or 
several  illegitimate  wives.  Those  privileged  by  wealth 
allow  nothing  to  prevent  them  from  doing  as  they  choose. 

Even  in  the  orient  where  custom  and  law  have  suffered 
polygamy  to  exist  for  thousands  of  years,  relatively  few 
men  have  more  than  one  wife.  We  speak  of  the  degrad- 
ing influence  of  life  in  Turkish  harems.  But  we  overlook 
the  fact  that  only  very  few  men  belonging  to  the  ruling 
class  can  afford  to  maintain  a  harem,  while  the  great  mass 
of  men  live  in  monogamic  marriage.  In  the  city  of  Algiers 
at  the  close  of  the  sixties  of  the  last  century,  there  were 
among  18,282  marriages  no  less  than  17,319  with  only  one 
wife ;  there  were  888  marriages  with  two  wives,  and  only 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day 


157 


75  with  more  than  two.  In  Constantinople,  the  capital 
of  the  Turkish  empire,  conditions  are  probably  quite  sim- 
ilar. Among  the  rural  population  in  the  orient  the  con- 
ditions favoring  monogamic  marriage  are  still  more  strik- 
ing. In  the  orient,  as  with  us,  material  conditions  come 
into  consideration  that  compel  the  majority  of  men  to 
content  themselves  with  one  wife.*  But  if  conditions 
were  equally  favorable  to  all  men  polygamy  could  still 
not  be  generally  maintained  because  there  are  not  enough 
women.  Under  normal  conditions  the  numbers  of  per- 
sons of  both  sexes  are  almost  equal,  which  everywhere 
points  to  monogamic  marriage.  The  following  table 
which  has  been  published  by  Buecher  in  the  "General 
Statistic  Records,"  proves  this  assertion.** 


Number  of 
male  persons 

Number  of 
female  persons 

Entire 
population 

Number  of 
women  for 
every  1000  men 

Kurope  

I7o,Sl8  ^6l 

174.  QI4  IIQ 

•745,772  680 

I.  O24 

America  

4.1,64^  ^80 

4o  S4o  ^86 

82.l8l.775 

071 

Asia  

177,648  044 

170  260  I7Q 

747,017,22^ 

Australia  
Africa  

2,197,799 
6.004.064 

i,87i,82i 
6,771,^60 

4,069,620 
I?  76s,  425 

852 
068 

399,301,857 

394,366,865 

793,668,722 

988 

The  result  of  this  compilation  may,  to  many  people,  be 
a  surprising  one.  With  the  exception  of  Europe  where 
there  are,  on  an  average,  1,024  female  inhabitants  for 
every  1000  male  inhabitants,  the  male  population  predom- 
inates. Even  if  we  may  assume  that  the  information  is 
incomplete,  especially  in  regard  to  the  female  sex,  and 
that  especially  in  countries  with  a  Mohammedan  popula- 
tion the  female  population  surpasses  the  given  figures, 

Throughout  India  polygamy  exists  in  only  a  moderate  form. 
According  to  the  census  of  1901  which  includes  all  religions,  there 
were  for  every  1000  married  men,  1,011  married  women.  According 
to  this  the  monogamic  eauilibrium  is  not  seriously  interfered  with. — 
D.  v.  Mayer. 

**Karl  Buecher,  on  the  distribution  of  both  sexes  upon  the  earth ; 
lecture  delivered  on  Tan.  6,  1892,  before  the  Geographical  and  Statis- 
tical Society  of  Frankfort  on  the  Main.  General  Statistic  Records 
published  by  Dr.  George  v.  Mayer.  Vol.  II.  Tubingen,  1892. 


158  The  Chances  of  Matrimony 

the  fact  remains  that,  except  in  a  few  European  countries, 
the  female  population  nowhere  considerably  exceeds  the 
male  population.  In  the  meantime  the  imperial  bureau 
of  statistics  in  Berlin  has  published  a  new  compilation  of 
the  census  in  European  and  non-European  countries 
which  includes  883,000,000  people.  "When  we  take  into 
consideration  the  census,  not  included  in  this  compilation, 
of  Italy,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  Costa  Rica,  Argentine 
Republic,  the  Transvaal,  Orange  River  Colony,  Cyprus, 
Formosa  and  Pescadores,  the  number  of  enumerated  in- 
habitants of  the  earth  attains  882,000,000  with  a  general 
average  of  991  female  persons  for  every  1000  male  per- 
sons. For  the  enumerated  population  of  the  earth  we 
may  therefore  assume  an  almost  equal  representation  of 
both  sexes  with  a  slight  preponderance  of  the  male.* 

In  Europe  the  conditions  are  different.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  countries  of  South  Eastern  Europe,  Bos- 
nia, Herzegovina,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  Rumania  and  Greece, 
the  female  population  predominates.  The  proportion  is 
least  unfavorable  in  Hungary  and  Italy  where  there  are 
respectively  1,009  and  1,010  female  inhabitants  for  every 
1000  male  inhabitants.  Belgium  comes  next  with  1013 
female  for  every  1000  male  inhabitants.  Portugal  and 
Norway  show  the  most  unfavorable  proportion;  next  to 
these  Great  Britain  with  1063  female  for  every  1000  male 
inhabitants.  France,  Germany,  Austria  and  Russia  lie  in 
the  middle  having  for  every  1000  male  inhabitants  respec- 
tively 1,033,  l>°32>  l>°35  and  1,029  female  inhabitants.** 
In  Germany  during  the  last  two  decades  each  census  has 
shown  a  more  favorable  proportion.  On  Dec.  I,  1885, 
the  female  population  exceeded  the  male  population  by 
988,376  persons.  The  census  of  Dec.  I,  1890,  still  showed 
an  excess  of  the  female  population  of  966,806  persons. 
1895 — 957,401 ;  1900 — 892,684,  and  according  to  the  cen- 
sus of  Dec.  i,  1905  the  excess  of  the  female  population 
had  sunken  to  871,916  persons  (1029  female  for  every  1000 

*G.  v.  Mayer — Dr.  G  Schnapper  Arndt  in  his  book  of  Social 
Statistics  arrives  at  the  same  conclusion.  "Taken  all  in  all  the  pro- 
portion of  both  sexes  is  approximately  equal" 

** According  to  G.  Schnnpper  Arndt;  founded  on  recent  census 
figures,  around  the  close  of  the  century. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day 


159 


male  inhabitants).  The  decline  of  this  difference  may  be 
chiefly  accounted  for  by  the  decline  of  emigration  in 
which  the  male  sex  is  mainly  concerned.  This  may  be 
clearly  seen  from  the  proportion  of  the  sexes  in  the 
United  States,  into  which  the  stream  of  emigration  is 
mainly  directed,  and  where  the  dearth  of  women  is  almost 
as  great  as  the  excess  of  women  in  Germany.  In  1900 
for  every  1000  men  there  were  only  953  women.  This 
emigration  from  Germany  decreased  from  220,902  persons 
in  1881  to  22,073  persons  in  1901  and  to  19,883  persons 
in  1908.  The  fact,  that  more  men  than  women  emigrate, 
accounts  in  the  first  place  then  for  the  difference  between 
the  numbers  of  persons  of  both  sexes.  Italy  furnishes  a 
good  example;  for  t*here  the  male  population  still  pre- 
dominated at  the  beginning  of  the  forties  of  the  last  cent- 
ury, while  at  present  the  female  population  predominates, 
owing  to  the  large  en  igration. 

Furthermore,  more  men  than  women  meet  with  acci- 
dents in  agriculture,  industry,  commerce  and  traffic.  Also 
more  men  are  temporarily  absent  abroad  as  merchants, 
sailors,  marines,  etc.  Another  fact  that  has  been  statis- 
tically proven  and  that  constitutes  an  important  factor 
is  that  women  on  an  average  attain  a  higher  age  than 
men  and  that  therefore  there  are  more  old  women  than 
old  men.  According  to  the  census  of  1900  the  proportion 
of  the  sexes  according  to  age  in  Germany  was  the 
following : 


•D^ 

AGE 

Male 

Female 

More 
male 

More 
female 

Excees 
of  female 
population 

Under  10  years  .  .  . 

6,904,732 

6,871,599 

33,133 





From  i  o  to  15  years 

2,925,918 

2,912,573 

13,345 

— 

— 

15      21 

3,179-813 

3,162,448 

17,365 

— 

— 

21      30 

4,251,204 

4,293,775 

— 

42,571 

— 

30      40 

3,669,656 

3,731,556 

— 

61,900 

— 

40      50 

2,770,451 

2,923,228 

— 

152,777 

— 

50      60 

2,053,085 

2,320,273 

— 

267,188 

— 

60      70 

1,300,637 

I,545,8o8 

—  . 

245,171 

— 

70  years  up  . 

681,751 

868,671 

— 

186,920 

— 

27,737,247 

28,629,931 

63,845 

956,527 

892,684 

160  The  Chances  of  Matrimony 

This  table  shows  that  up  to  the  twenty-first  year  the 
number  of  boys  exceeds  the  number  of  girls.*  This  ex- 
cess of  boys  is  due  to  the  fact  that  everywhere  more  boys 
than  girls  are  born.  The  following  number  of  boys  and 
girls,  for  instance,  were  born  in  the  German  empire : 

During  the  year  1872  for  100  girls  106.2  boys 
"   '       "       "      1884   "     100     "      106.2     " 
"      1900   "     100     "      106.0     " 
"     1905    "     ioo     "      106.3     " 
"      1907   '      ioo  106.3 

But  the  male  sex  dies  younger  than  the  female  sex; 
especially  during  infancy  more  boys  than  girls  die.  Our 
table  shows  that  from  the  twenty-first  year  on  the  female 
population  exceeds  the  male.  The  following  figures  show 
the  death-rate  of  male  and  female  inhabitants  in  Germany : 

During  the  During  the 

years          Male  Female  years         Male  Female 

1872 — 1875...  29.5  26.3  1891 — 1895...  24.6        22.1 

1876 — 1880. .  .27.8  24:5  1896 — 1900. .  .22.6        20.0 

1881 — 1885...  27.3  24.2  1901 — 1905...  21.0        18.8 

1886— 1890...  25.8  23.1  ** 

The  table  on  page  159  furthermore  shows  that  at  the 
true  marriageable  age,  between  the  twenty-first  and 
fiftieth  year  the  female  sex  exceeds  the  male  sex  by 
257,248  persons  (in  the  year  1890  by  422,519)  and  be- 
tween the  fiftieth  and  seventieth  year  by  699,279  (in  the 
year  1890  by  566,400).  In  Germany  as  in  England  the 
number  of  old  women  increases  each  year.  A  great  dis- 
proportion, that  constantly  increases,  is  furthermore  met 
with  among  widowed  and  divorced  persons. 

According  to  the  census  of  1890  and  1900  there  were 
the  following  numbers  of  widowed  persons  in  Germany : 


*According  to  the  census  of  1890,  there  was  an  excess  of  boys 
only  up  to  the  tenth  year  of  age,  and  according  to  the  census  of  1895, 
up  to  the  sixteenth  year. 

** Hygienic  and  ethnological  conditions  of  the  German  Empire. 
Berlin,  1907-— During  the  year  1907  for  every  ioo  female  deceased 
there  were  109.3  male. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  161 

1890  1900 

Men    774,967  809,238 

Women    2,157,870  2,352,921 


More  women  than  men. ..  .1,382,903         1,543,683 
These  widowed  persons  were  of  the  following  ages : 

1890  1900 

Men         Women  Men       Women 

40  to  60  years 222,286       842,920  225,191        900,357 

60  years  and  older  506,319     1,158,712  537,116     1,299,905 

The  number  of  divorced  persons  were  during  1890, 
25,271  men  and  49,601  women.  During  1900,  31,279  men 
and  60,738  women.  These  were  of  the  following  ages : 

1890  1900 

Men       Women  Men      Women 

40  to  60  years.... 1 3,825         24,842  16,976        30,385 

60  years  and  older..  4,917          7,244  5,713          8,452 

These  figures  show  us  that  widowed  and  divorced 
women  are  excluded  from  remarriage,  even  during  the 
age  best  suited  to  marriage.  For  during  the  years  1890 
and  1900  there  were  respectively  46,362  and  46,931 
widowed  men  up  to  the  fortieth  year  of  age,  while  during 
the  same  years  there  were  respectively  156,235  and 
152,689  widowed  women.  There  were  divorced  men  in 
1890  and  1900  respectively  6519  and  8590  and  divorced 
women  17,515  and  21,901.  Here  the  disadvantage  of  di- 
vorce to  the  women  is  proved  by  figures. 

The  following  shows  the  proportion  of  unmarried  per- 
sons during  1900:  -_  _..- 

Men  Women 

15  to  40  years 6,700,352         5,824,464 

40  to  60  years 426,388  503,406 

60  years  and  older. . . .    141,416  252,134* 

'\mong  the  unmarried  persons  between  the  fifteenth 
and  fortieth  year  there  are,  as  above  table  shows,  875,888 
more  men  than  women,  which  appears  to  be  very  favor- 
able to  women.  But  men  between  the  fifteenth  and  twen- 

*Statistics  of  the  German  Empire.    Census  of  Dec.  i,  1900. 


1 62  The  Chances  of  Matrimony 

ty-first  year  of  age, — at  which  age  there  are  3,175,453  men 
to  3,064,567  women, — are,  with  very  few  exceptions,  un- 
able to  marry.  The  same  may  be  said  of  men  between 
the  twenty-first  and  twenty-fifth  year  of  age,  the  great 
majority  of  whom  are  unable  to  support  a  family,  while 
women  of  this  age  are  all  marriageable.  When  we  further- 
more consider  the  fact  that  for  diverse  reasons  a  great 
many  men  do  not  marry  at  all, — the  number  of  unmarried 
men  over  40  years  were  567,804, — we  find  that  the  position 
of  women  in  regard  to  marriage  is  a  highly  unfavorable 
one.  A  great  many  women  then,  under  present-day  con- 
ditions, are  compelled  to  deny  themselves  the  legitimate 
satisfaction  of  the  sexual  impulse,  while  men  seek  and 
find  satisfaction  in  prostitution.  The  position  of  women 
would  become  a  far  more,  favorable  one,  as  soon  as  a 
transformation  of  social  conditions  would  abolish  the  ob- 
stacles that  at  present  prevent  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
men  from  becoming  married. 

As  already  mentioned  the  disproportion  in  the  numbers 
of  the  sexes  is  due  to  a  great  extent  to  emigration. 
Obligatory  service  in  the  army  also  drives  many  young 
men,  frequently  the  strongest,  to  seek  their  fortune 
abroad.  According  to  official  reports  of  the  army,  135,168 
men  were  convicted  of  illicit  emigration,  and  13,055  more 
cases  were  being  investigated.  These  figures  include  men 
up  to  the  forty-fifth  year.  This  illicit  emigration  of  men 
from  Germany  causes  a  considerable  loss.  Emigration  is 
especially  large  in  the  years  following  great  wars;  that 
was  seen  after  1866  and  during  the  years  1871  to  1874. 

We  furthermore  have  great  losses  of  life  among  men 
by  accidents.  In  Prussia  during  the  period  from  1883  to 
1905  no  less  than  297,983  persons  were  killed  by  acci- 
dents; of  these  there  were,  during  the  one  year  1905, 
11,792  men  and  2,922  women.  From  1886  to  1907,  150,719 
persons  were  killed  by  accidents  in  industry,  agriculture 
and  state  or  municipal  employment ;  only  a  small  fraction 
of  these  were  women.  Another  considerable  portion  of 
persons  employed  in  these  occupations  become  maimed 
or  crippled  for  life  and  therefore  unable  to  maintain  a 
family.  (There  were  40,744  of  these  from  1886  to  1907.) 
Others  die  young  leaving  their  families  in  the  neediest 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  163 

circumstances.  Much  loss  of  life  among  men  is  also  con- 
nected with  navigation.  From  1882  to  1907,  2,848  sea- 
going vessels  were  sunk,  entailing  a  loss  of  life  of  4,913 
members  of  the  crew, — almost  all  men, — and  1,275 
passengers. 

Only  when  the  highest  valuation  of  human  life  has  been 
established, — which  will  be  the  case  in  a  Socialistic  com- 
munity,— will  society  be  enabled  to  prevent  a  grea* 
majority  of  accidents  on  land  and  sea.  At  present  man} 
persons  are  killed  or  maimed  as  a  result  of  illapplied 
economy  of  employers.  In  many  other  cases  accidents 
are  due  to  excessive  speed  or  over-fatigue  of  workers. 
Human  life  is  cheap.  When  one  workingman  has  been 
killed  there  are  many  others  to  take  his  place. 

Especially  in  navigation  many  preventable  accidents 
occur.  By  the  revelations  of  Plimsoll  in  the  English  par- 
liament during  the  seventies,  the  fact  became  generally 
known  that  many  owners  of  unseaworthy  vessels,  im- 
pelled by  criminal  greed,  insured  these  vessels  at  a  high 
rate  and  then  sent  them  with  their  crew  to  almost  certain 
destruction,  in  order  to  obtain  the  amount  of  insurance. 
These  are  the  so-called  death-ships  that  are  not  un- 
known in  Germany  either.  Every  year  the  marine 
bureaus  are  called  upon,  to  pronounce  their  verdicts  in 
connection  with  a  number  of  marine  accidents,  and  those 
verdicts  usually  show  the  accidents  to  be  due  to  advanced 
age  or  overloading  or  improper  condition  of  the  vessel  or 
insufficient  equipment,  or  a  number  of  these  causes  com- 
bined. In  the  cases  of  many  sunken  ships  the  causes  of 
their  sinking  can  never  be  determined,  because  the  disas- 
ters occur  in  mid-ocean  and  no  one  survives  to  tell  the 
tale.  Many  crimes  are  committed  in  this  way.  The 
stations  for  saving  ship-wrecked  persons  established  at 
the  coasts,  are  also  very  insufficient  because  they  are 
chiefly  maintained  by  private  charity.  An  organized 
society  that  will  regard  it  as  its  highest  duty  to  provide 
equally  for  all  its  members,  will  succeed  in  making  all 
these  accidents  of  extremely  rare  occurrence.  But  under 
the  present  predatory  system,  where  human  lives  are 


164  The  Chances  of  Matrimony 

regarded  as  mere  ciphers  and  the  sole  aim  is  to  attain  the 
highest  possible  profit,  a  human  life  is  sometimes  sac- 
rificed in  order  that  a  dollar  may  be  gained. 

2. — Obstacles  to  Marriage.    The  Excess  of  Women, 

There  are  still  other  causes  that  make  marriage  difficult 
or  prevent  it  entirely.  A  considerable  number  of  men 
are  prevented  from  marrying  by  the  state.  People  con- 
demn the  enforced  celibacy  of  the  Catholic  clergy,  but 
they  do  not  mention  the  fact  that  a  far  greater  number 
of  soldiers  are  doomed  to  celibacy  likewise.  When  an 
officer  of  the  army  wishes  to  marry,  he  not  only  requires 
the  consent  of  his  superiors,  he  is  also  denied  the  free 
choice  of  a  wife,  since  it  is  prescribed  that  he  must  pos- 
sess a  certain  amount  of  wealth.  In  Austria  a  captain  of 
the  army  seeking  to  marry,  must  give  a  security  of  30,000 
florins  if  he  is  under  thirty  years  of  age,  20,000  florins  if 
he  is  over  thirty ;  minor  officers  must  give  a  security  of 
16,000  florins.  In  all  cases  the  fiancee  of  an  army  officer 
must  have  lead  an  immaculate  life,  and  her  standard  of 
living  must  be  suited  to  his  rank.  In  Germany,  officers 
of  the  army  may  seek  permission  to  marry  only  when 
they  can  prove  that  they  have  an  additional  income.  The 
required  size  of  this  additional  income  varies  with  the 
different  ranks.  These  are  striking  proofs  of  the  mate- 
rialistic conception  of  marriage  maintained  by  the  state. 

Public  opinion  in  general  maintains,  that  men  should 
not  marry  until  they  have  attained  their  twenty-fourth  or 
twenty-fifth  year  of  life.  This  opinion  is  founded  on  the 
fact  that  few  men  are  able  to  support  a  family  before  they 
have  reached  this  age.  Only  persons  who  are  fortunate 
enough  not  to  be  obliged  to  win  an  independent  position, 
— persons  of  princely  rank,  for  instance, — form  an  excep- 
tion. In  their  case  we  regard  it  as  quite  proper  that  a 
man  should  become  married  at  eighteen  or  nineteen,  and 
a  maiden  at  fifteen  or  sixteen  years  of  age.  Princes  come 
of  age  when  they  are  eighteen  years  old,  and  are  consid- 
ered competent  to  rule  the  most  numerous  people.  Com- 
mon mortals  do  not  come  of  age  until  they  are  twenty- 
one  years  old. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  165 

This  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  age  at  which 
marriage  is  desirable,  shows  that  only  social  considera- 
tions are  taken  into  account,  that  have  no  bearing  upon 
man  as  a  sex  being.  But  nature  will  not  be  fettered  by 
definite  social  conditions  and  the  views  that  have  sprung 
from  these  conditions.  As  soon  as  a  human  being  has 
attained  maturity,  the  sexual  impulse  manifests  itself 
with  all  its  vigor. 

The  advent  of  puberty  with  the  female  sex  differs  ac- 
cording to  the  individual,  the  climate  and  the  mode  of 
life.  In  the  torrid  zones  it  sets  in  as  early  as  the  ninth 
or  tenth  year,  and  sometimes  one  meets  women  of  that 
age  with  their  first  babes  in  their  arms;  but  they  are 
faded  when  they  have  attained  their  twenty-fifth  or  thir- 
tieth year.*  In  the  temperate  zones  girls  usually  attain 
puberty  at  fourteen  or  sixteen  years  of  age,  in  some  cases 
later  still.  The  age  of  puberty  also  differs  with  girls  liv- 
ing in  the  country  from  those  living  in  cities.  Among  the 
healthy,  robust  country  girls  who  work  hard,  as  a  rule 
menstruation  sets  in  later  than  among  our  poorly 
nourished,  effeminate,  ethereal  young  ladies  in  the  cities, 
who  suffer  from  over-excitement  of  the  nerves.  In  the 
country  puberty  usually  developes  in  the  normal  way.  In 
the  city  its  normal  development  is  an  exception,  and  not 
infrequently  it  is  accompanied  by  various  symptoms  of 
disease  that  drive  physicians  to  despair.  Often  physicians 
are  obliged  to  say  that  the  only  certain  cure  would  be 
marriage.  But  in  many  cases  this  cure  cannot  be  applied, 
owing  to  the  unsurmountable  obstacles. 

All  these  factors  show  where  we  must  seek  a  change. 
To  begin  with,  we  need  a  complete  revolution  in  our 
educational  methods.  We  need  a  system  of  education 
that  takes  both  the  physical  and  intellectual  qualities  into 
consideration.  Furthermore,  we  need  an  entirely  different 
mode  of  living  and  working.  But  both  cannot  be  brought 
about  except  by  a  complete  transformation  of  social 
conditions. 

Our  social  conditions  have  created  a  profound  contra- 
diction between  man  as  a  sex  being  and  man  as  a  social 

*E!y  Metschnikoff— The  Nature  of  Man. 


1 66  The  Chances  of  Matrimony 

being.  This  contradiction  has  never  been  so  noticeable 
as  in  the  present  age,  and  it  leads  to  many  evils  and  dis- 
eases to  which  women  especially  are  subjected.  In  the 
first  place  the  woman's  organism  is  far  more  influenced 
by  her  sex  mission  than  man's  organism  (for  instance,  the 
regular  recurrence  of  menstruation)  ;  in  the  second  place 
she  is  confronted  by  the  greatest  number  of  obstacles 
that  prevent  her  from  satisfying  her  strongest  natural 
impulse  in  a  natural  way.  This  contradiction  between 
natural  impulse  and  social  constraint  leads  to  anomalies, 
to  secret  vices  and  excesses  that  are  bound  to  undermine 
even  strong  constitutions.  Unnatural  satisfaction  is  fre- 
quently aided  in  a  most  shameless  manner.  In  the  adver- 
tisements of  newspapers  and  periodicals,  certain  manufac- 
tures are  recommended  in  a  more  or  less  veiled  manner. 
These  advertisements  appeal  to  the  wealthy  classes  of 
society,  because  the  price  of  the  manufactures  are  so  high 
that  a  person  of  moderate  means  could  not  buy  them. 
Besides  we  find  advertisements  of  obscene  pictures,  entire 
series  of  photographs,  and  poetry  and  prose  of  a  similar 
character,  whose  very  titles  are  intended  to  produce  sen- 
sual excitement.  These  matters  ought  to  claim  the  atten- 
tion of  the  police  and  public  prosecutors.  But  these  gen- 
tlemen are  too  busy  persecuting  Socialism,  "that  will 
destroy  the  home  and  the  family,"  to  give  their  full  atten- 
tion to  such  doings.  A  part  of  our  novels  influence  the 
sentiments  of  the  reading  public  in  the  same  direction. 
It  is  really  not  to  be  wondered  at  if  sexual  debauchery, 
artificially  stimulated,  gradually  becomes  a  social  disease. 
Many  women  of  the  wealthy  classes  lead  an  idle,  self- 
indulgent  life.  They  stimulate  their  nerves  by  the  most 
extraordinary  means,  and  indulge  in  a  certain  enjoyment 
of  art  that  creates  an  exaggerated  sentimentality  and 
heightens  their  nervous  irritability.  All  this  increases  the 
sensual  passions  and  naturally  leads  to  excesses.  Among 
poor  people  sexual  irritability  is  frequently  heightened  by 
certain  kinds  of  hard  work,  especially  such  work  that 
compels  people  to  lead  a  sedentary  life  which  creates  con- 
gestion of  the  blood  in  the  abdominal  organs.  One  of  the 
most  dangerous  occupations  in  this  respect  is  constant 
work  at  the  sewing  machine,  an  occupation  in  which  a 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  167 

great  many  women  are  employed  at  present.  This  work 
is  so  detrimental  to  the  health  of  women  that  ten  to 
twelve  hours  of  it  daily  will  shatter  the  strongest  consti- 
tution in  a  few  years.  Excessive  sexual  irritability  is  also 
brought  about  by  long  hours  of  work  in  a  high  tempera- 
ture, for  instance  in  sugar  refineries,  laundries,  printing 
establishments,  etc.  The  same  may  be  said  of  night  work 
with  artificial  light  in  overcrowded  work-shops,  espec- 
ially where  members  of  both  sexes  work  together. 

Here  again  we  are  confronted  by  a  number  of  evils  that 
clearly  show  the  unhealthful  and  irrational  character  of 
present-day  conditions.  But  these  evils  that  are  deeply 
rooted  in  our  social  conditions,  cannot  be  removed  by 
moralizing  or  by  resorting  to  palliative  measures,  such  as 
social  and  religious  quacks  always  have  in  readiness.  It 
is  necessary  to  strike  the  root  of  the  evil.  The  only 
redemption  will  be  to  bring  about  social  conditions  that 
shall  enable  all  persons  to  obtain  a  natural  education,  to 
lead  a  healthful  mode  of  life  and  work,  and  to  find  normal 
satisfaction  of  all  natural  and  healthy  desires. 

Many  obstacles  do  not  exist  for  the  man  that  do  exist 
for  the  woman.  Owing  to  his  position  of  rulership,  his 
free  choice  of  a  mate  is  in  no  wise  hampered,  except  by 
the  social  considerations  enumerated  above.  But  the 
nature  of  marriage  as  a  means  of  support,  the  numerical 
superiority  of  women,  and  custom, — all  prevent  the 
woman  from  asserting  her  wishes.  She  is  obliged  to  wait 
until  someone  seeks  her.  As  a  rule  she  gladly  avails  herself 
of  the  first  opportunity  of  finding  a  husband  who  will  save 
her  from  the  social  disregard  and  indifference  that  are  the 
usual  portion  of  that  unfortunate  being,  the  old  maid. 
Many  women  look  down  with  disdain  upon  those  of  their 
sisters  who  are  possessed  of  sufficient  human  dignity  not 
to  sell  themselves  into  the  prostitution  of  marriage  to  the 
first  man  who  comes  along,  but  prefer  to  walk  on  life's 
thorny  path  alone.  Nevertheless  the  man  who  wishes  to 
marry  for  love  has  social  obstacles  to  consider.  He  must 
ask  himself:  can  I  support  a  wife  and  the  children  who 
are  likely  to  come,  without  being  weighed  down  by  finan- 
cial cares?  If  the  man  has  an  ideal  conception  of  mar- 
riage, if  he  is  determined  to  let  his  choice  be  influenced  by 


1 68  The  Chances  of  Matrimony 

love  only,  this  question  becomes  all  the  more  important. 
At  present  conditions  of  earning  and  property  are  such, 
that  many  men  must  answer  this  question  in  the  negative, 
and  they  accordingly  prefer  to  remain  unmarried.  Many 
men  do  not  acquire  an  independent  position,  suited  to 
their  demands,  until  late  in  life,  and  are  not  able  to  sup- 
port a  wife  according  to  her  station  in  life  unless  she  has 
a  considerable  fortune  of  her  own.  It  must  be  admitted 
of  course,  that  many  young  men  have  an  exaggerated  idea 
of  what  constitutes  living  according  to  their  station ;  but 
owing  to  the  false  education  of  many  women  and  their 
social  habits,  these  young  men  must  indeed  be  prepared 
that  their  wives  will  make  demands  upon  them  that  will 
exceed  their  means.  They  frequently  do  not  make  the 
acquaintance  of  the  good,  modest  women  who  are  simple 
in  their  tastes,  because  they  are  modest  in  their  manners 
also  and  are  not  met  with  in  society  where  men  have  ac- 
customed themselves  to  seek  wives,  while  the  women 
they  do  meet  often  are  the  kind  who  seek  to  fascinate  a 
man  by  outward  appearances  and  to  deceive  him  in  regard 
to  their  personal  qualities  and  their  material  position. 
When  this  type  of  woman  has  attained  an  age  at  which 
marriage  becomes  urgent,  lures  of  all  sorts  are  resorted 
to  all  the  more  eagerly.  When  such  a  woman  has  suc- 
ceeded in  capturing  a  man,  she  has  become  so  accustomed 
to  outward  show,  extravagance  in  dress  and  costly  enjoy- 
ments that  she  wishes  to  maintain  them  in  her  married 
life.  Here  men  find  themselves  on  the  verge  of  an  abyss, 
and  many  prefer  to  leave  the  flowers  that  bloom  at  this 
abyss  unplucked.  They  prefer  to  pursue  their  path  alone 
and  seek  entertainment  and  enjoyment  while  maintaining 
their  freedom.  Deception  and  fraud  are  common  prac- 
tices in  bourgeois  society.  It  is  not  surprising  that  they 
also  play  a  part  in  the  contracting  of  marriages  and  entail 
severe  suffering  of  both  parties. 

Statistics  show  that  the  educated  and  wealthy  classes 
as  a  rule  marry  later  in  life  than  the  lower  classes.  Ac- 
cording to  Westergaard  the  average  age  of  marriage  in 
Copenhagen  was :  among  professional  people,  merchants, 
manufacturers  and  bankers,  32.2  years ;  among  mechanics 
and  small  dealers,  31.2  years;  among  clerks  and  commer- 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  169 

cial  employees,  29.7  years;  among  waiters  and  domestic 
servants,  28,  and  among  factory  workers,  sailors  and  day- 
laborers,  27.5  years.  In  Prussia  from  1881  to  1886  the 
average  ages  at  which  men  married  were :  miners,  27.6 ; 
factory  workers,  27.7;  metal  workers,  28;  stone-masons, 
28.2;  building  trades,  28.6;  workers  in  wood,  28.7; 
machinists,  29;  teaching,  29.1;  agriculture,  29.6;  railway 
service,  30;  commerce,  30.9;  physicians,  clergymen  and 
officials,  31.8  to  33.4.  According  to  Ansell  the  average 
age  at  which  the  well-to-do  and  educated  classes  married 
in  England  from  1840  to  1871,  was  29.95  years;  but  since 
then  it  has  been  raised.  From  1880  to  1885,  the  average 
ages  at  which  men  of  different  professions  married,  were 
as  follows : 

years  years 

Miners 23.56  Clerks    25.75 

Textile  workers  . . .  .23.88  Merchants    26.17 

Clothing  trades 24.42  Farmers    28.73 

Mechanics    24.85  Professional     men 

Day-laborers 25.06  and  capitalists.  .30.72 

These  figures  show  how  marriage  is  influenced  by 
social  position.  The  fact  that  the  average  age  of  mar- 
riage in  most  European  states  has  been  somewhat  low- 
erred  during  the  last  decades,  is  due  to  the  general 
growth  of  industrialism.  This  may  be  seen  in  Germany, 
Austria  and  Sweden  where  the  increase  of  early  marriages 
is  in  connection  with  the  growing  number  of  persons  em- 
ployed in  industry.  In  older  industrial  countries,  as 
France  and  England,  the  average  age  of  marriage  has 
been  raised.  Russia  forms  an  exception ;  here  the  rise  in 
the  average  age  of  marriage  is  due  to  the  abolition  of  com- 
munal property. 

The  number  of  men  who  are  prevented  from  marrying 
for  numerous  reasons  is  constantly  increasing.  This  ap- 
plies especially  to  the  men  of  the  upper  classes  and  the 
higher  professions ;  firstly  because  they  are  more  preten- 
tious, and  secondly  because  these  men  are  best  enabled 
to  find  companionship  and  pleasure  outside  of  marriage. 
Conditions  are  especially  unfavorable  to  women  in  places 
where  there  are  many  pensioneers  with  their  families,  and 


i  yo  The  Chances  of  Matrimony 

few  young  men.  There  we  find  from  twenty  to  thirty 
women  among  hundred  who  are  unable  to  marry.  The 
lack  of  men  seeking  marriage  is  most  severely  felt  by 
those  women,  who  have  been  accustomed  by  their  social 
position  to  require  a  certain  standard  of  life  but  who  have 
no  dowery.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  young  girls  of 
those  numerous  families  that  depend  upon  a  fixed  salary 
which  leaves  them  socially  respectable  but  poor.  These 
girls  often  become  dangerous  competitors  to  the  working 
girls  who  earn  their  living  by  embroidery,  making  under- 
wear, making  artificial  flowers,  hats,  gloves,  etc. ;  that  is, 
in  all  those  trades  in  which  the  employers  prefer  to  have 
the  work  done  in  the  homes  of  the  workers.  These  ladies 
often  work  for  the  lowest  wages  because  they  are  not 
obliged  to  earn  their  living  entirely  but  only  wish  to  add 
to  the  family  income  or  to  earn  enough  to  pay  for  their 
clothes.  Employers  favor  the  competition  of  these  ladies, 
because  it  enables  them  to  reduce  the  wages  of  the  poor 
proletarian  workers  and  to  drive  them  to  the  utmost  exer- 
tion of  their  strength.  Many  wives  of  government  offi- 
cials, whose  husbands  are  poorly  paid  and  cannot  main- 
tain them  according  to  their  standard  of  living,  also  em- 
ploy their  spare  time  in  such  sordid  competition,  which 
means  increased  exploitation  among  large  strata  of  female 
proletarians. 

The  agitation  carried  on  by  the  bourgeois  women's 
clubs  to  elevate  women's  work  and  to  gain  admission  for 
women  into  the  higher  professions,  is  especially  destined 
to  improve  the  position  of  women  of  the  upper  classes. 
In  order  to  do  this  successfully,  these  clubs  seek  the 
patronage  of  ladies  of  high  rank.  In  this  respect  the 
bourgeois  women  only  follow  the  example  of  the  bour- 
geois men,  who  also  seek  such  patronage  and  become 
interested  in  such  endeavors  that  only  show  small,  never 
large  results.  In  this  way  people  waste  a  tremendous 
amount  of  effort,  and  deceive  themselves  and  others  in 
regard  to  the  necessity  of  thorough-going  reform.  In 
these  circles  no  doubt  is  permitted  to  arise  as  to  the 
justice  and  wisdom  of  our  present  state  and  social  order. 
The  conservative  nature  of  such  endeavors  prevent  clubs 
of  this  kind  from  being  permeated  by  so-called  destruc- 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day 


171 


tivc  tendencies.  At  a  convention  of  women  in  Berlin 
during  the  spring  of  1894,  a  minority  expressed  the 
thought  that  it  might  be  well  if  the  bourgeois  women 
would  co-operate  with  the  proletarian  women,  that  is,  the 
Socialist  women  ;  but  with  a  majority  of  the  delegates  this 
suggestion  called  forth  a  storm  of  protest.  But  the  con- 
servative tendencies  of  the  bourgeois  women  will  not 
accomplish  the  liberation  of  womankind. 

How  many  women  are  excluded  from  marriage  owing 
to  the  causes  previously  stated,  cannot  be  definitely  de- 
termined. The  numerical  superiority  of  women  in  Ger- 
many is  distributed  very  unevenly,  both  in  regard  to  the 
different  countries  and  districts  and  in  regard  to  age. 
The  following  table  has  been  compiled  from  the  census 
of  1900  (Statistic  of  the  German  Empire)  : 


Number  of  women  for  every  1000  men 

under  15 

15  to  40 

40  to  60 

over  60 

Berlin  

IOI2 
1015 

1015 

986 
1015 
IOOO 

999 
993 
989 
991 

1044 

1030 
1024 

997 
1041 

974 
1031 
1015 
1035 
954 

1191 
1107 

1083 

1070 

1134. 
1079 
1038 
1089 
1099 
1008 

1659 
1360 

1163 

H57 
1179 

1  173 
1454 
1276 
1214 

1  120 

Kingdom  of  Saxony  

"          "    Bavaria  to  the  right 
of  the  Rhine 

"          "    Bavaria  to  the  left  of 
the  Rhine 

"    Wurtemberg 

Baden  

Hamburg  

Province  of  Brandenburg  

4<         44    Pomerania  

"         "   the  Rhine 

German  Empire  

995 

1008 

1087 

1218 

At  the  true  marriageable  age,  from  15  to  40  years,  the 
numerical  superiority  of  women  in  the  entire  German 
Empire  is  8  for  every  1,000  men.  The  number  of  male 
inhabitants  between  15  and  40  years  of  age  is  11,100,673 ; 
the  number  of  female  inhabitants  between  15  and  40  years 
of  age  is  11,187,779.  So  we  have  a  super-abundance  of 
87,106  women.  In  1900  there  were  11,146,833  German 
women  of  child-bearing  age  (18  to  45  years).  Among 
these  only  6,432,772  (57.71  percent)  were  married ;  283,629 
(2.54  percent)  were  widowed;  31,176  (0.28  percent)  were 


172 


The  Chances  of  Matrimony 


divorced,  and  4,399,286  (39.47  percent)  were  single.  The 
following  table  shows  the  proportion  of  the  sexes  in  other 
countries : 


In  the 
year 

Number  of  women  for  every  1000  men 

under  15 

15  to  40 

40  to  60 

over  60 

Germany             

1900 
1896 
1881 
1888 
1896 

1899 
1890 
1899 
1891 
1891 
1901 
1900 
1897 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 

995 
1005 
998 
969 
963 

992 

978 
971 
1006 

973 
968 

979 
943 
978 
978 
976 
977 
979 
989 

1008 
1046 
1029 

952 

IO2I 

1059 
1012 

853 
984 
1031 
1080 

1016 

1075 
1073 
1037 
969 
996 
962 
827 
698 

877 
927 
008 

1087 
1079 
982 
225 
1005 

1103 
1029 

988 

1018 
1031 
1073 
1146 
1096 
1165 
1103 
989 
943 
95i 
679 

559 
898 
661 
939 

I2l8 

1130 

I°33 
804 
980 
1148 
1108 
1063 
1117 

H45 
1179 
1252 
1227 

1389 
1032 
987 
1015 
1146 
665 
611 
632 

654 
1019 

Austria 

Hungary  

Servia  .... 

Italy  .  . 

Switzerland  

lyOUxembourg 

Belgium 

Netherlands 

Denmark 

Sweden  

Kngland  and  Wales  

Scotland  

Ireland 

United  States  of  America  .  . 

RfiTVDt 

Japan                      .  .       . 

New  South  Wales  

Queensland           

Tasmania           

New  Zealand  

Cape  of  Good  Hope  

This  table  shows  that  in  all  countries  having  a  similar 
economic  structure,  similar  conditions  exist  in  regard  to 
the  proportion  of  the  sexes.  In  all  these  countries  then 
a  great  many  women, — apart  from  all  other  obstacles 
already  mentioned, — have  no  prospect  of  becoming  mar- 
ried. In  England  in  1901  among  1,000  women  over  15 
years  only  496.4  were  married;  in  Scotland,  442.8;  in  Ire- 
land, 370.9;  in  bweden,  468.2;  in  Norway,  469.9. 

How  do  these  facts  impress  those  persons  who  oppose 
the  struggle  of  women  for  independence  and  equal  rights 
by  relegating  them  to  marriage  and  the  home?  It  is  not 
due  to  ill  will  on  the  part  of  the  women  if  so  many  fail 
to  marry. 

But  what  becomes  of  these  victims  of  our  social  condi- 
tions? That  nature  has  been  sinned  against  is  expressed 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  173 

in  the  peculiar  features  and  traits  of  character  by  which 
old  maids  and  ascetic  old  bachelors  are  distinguished  from 
other  persons  in  all  countries  and  climates,  and  goes  to 
show  the  strong  and  harmful  influence  resulting  from  the 
suppression  of  natural  instincts.  Many  forms  of  hysteria 
among  women  are  due  to  this  cause.  Hysteria  is  also 
caused  by  dissatisfaction  in  marriage,  which  sometimes 
results  in  sterility. 

These  are  the  general  characteristics  of  modern  mar- 
riage and  its  results.  From  them  we  must  draw  the  fol- 
lowing conclusion:  Present-day  marriage  is  an  institu- 
tion that  is  closely  connected  with  existing  social  condi- 
tions, with  which  it  must  stand  and  fall.  But  this  mar- 
riage is  in  a  state  of  decline  and  dissolution  as  bourgeois 
society  itself.  Which  are  the  salient  points  that  we  have 
determined  in  regard  to  bourgeois  marriage? 

i. — The  birth-rate  is  declining  although  the  population 
is  increasing,  which  shows  tnat  the  economic  status  of 
the  family  has  deteriorated. 

2. — Divorces  are  increasing  more  rapidly  than  the 
population  is  growing,  and  in  most  cases  women  are  the 
ones  to  seek  divorce,  although  they  suffer  most  in  con- 
sequence of  it,  both  economically  and  socially.  This 
shows  that  the  unfavorable  factors  in  marriage  are  in- 
creasing, that  marriage  is  in  a  state  of  dissolution. 

3. — The  marriage-rate  is  declining,  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  the  population  is  increasing;  which  proves  that 
in  the  eyes  of  many  persons  marriage  no  longer  accom- 
plishes its  social  and  moral  purpose  and  is  regarded  as 
worthless  or  pf  doubtful  value. 

4. — In  almost  all  civilized  states  there  is  a  disproportion 
in  the  number  of  the  sexes,  the  female  sex  predominating. 
This  is  not  due  to  natural  causes, — since  more  boys  than 
girls  are  born, — but  to  unfavorable  social  and  political 
factors  that  are  rooted  in  conditions  of  state  and  society. 

As  all  these  unnatural  conditions  that  are  especially 
harmful  to  women  are  established  by  the  nature  of  bour- 
geois society  and  increase  with  the  duration  of  its  exist- 
ence, this  society  proves  itself  incompetent  to  abolish  the 
evils  and  to  liberate  woman.  To  accomplish  this  a  dif- 
ferent social  order  will  be  necessary. 


174 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 
of  Bourgeois  Society. 

i. — Prostitution  and  Society. 

Marriage  constitutes  one  phase  of  the  sex  relations  of 
bourgeois  society;  prostitution  constitutes  the  other.  If 
men  fail  to  find  satisfaction  in  marriage,  they,  as  a  rule, 
seek  it  with  prostitution ;  and  those  men  who  for  one 
reason  or  another  refrain  from  marrying,  seek  satisfac- 
tion with  prostitutes  also.  To  those  men  then,  who  vol- 
untarily or  involuntarily  lead  an  unmarried  life,  and  to 
those  who  do  not  find  their  expectations  realized  in  mar- 
riage, opportunities  for  satisfaction  of  the  sexual  impulse 
are  far  more  favorable  than  to  women. 

Men  have  always  regarded  it  as  their  "just"  privilege 
to  employ  prostitution.  But  they  are  relentless  in  con- 
demning a  woman  who  is  not  a  prostitute,  when  she  has 
"fallen."  That  natural  impulses  are  implanted  in  women 
as  well  as  in  men  and  that  these  manifest  themselves  par- 
ticularly stongly  at  certain  periods  of  a  woman's  life, 
does  not  alter  their  judgment.  By  means  of  his  ruling 
position  man  compels  woman  to  suppress  her  most 
powerful  instincts,  and  makes  chastity  the  condition  of 
her  social  position  and  of  marriage.  Nothing  can  prove  the 
dependent  position  of  woman  in  a  more  emphatic  and 
revolting  way  than  these  vastly  differing  conceptions  in 
regard  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  same  natural  impulse. 

Man  is  especially  favored  by  conditions.  The  results 
of  sexual  intercourse  have  been  assigned  to  the  woman 
by  nature,  while  man  has  the  enjoyment  only  without 
trouble  or  responsibility.  This  natural  advantage  of 
men  over  women  has  fostered  the  unbridled  lust  which 
characterizes  a  great  many  men.  But  as  a  great  many 
causes  prevent  or  limit  the  legitimate  satisfaction  of  the 
sexual  impulse  the  result  is  its  illegitimate  satisfaction. 

Prostitution  thus  becomes  a  necessary  social  institu- 
tion of  bourgeois  society,  just  as  the  police,  the  standing 
army,  the  church  and  the  capitalist  class,  This  is  no  ex- 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  175 

aggeration ;  we  can  prove  it.  We  have  shown  how  pros- 
titution was  regarded  as  a  necessary  institution  in  ancient 
society  and  how  it  was  organized  by  the  state  in  both 
Greece  and  Rome.  We  have  also  shown  what  views  pre- 
vailed in  regard  to  it  during  the  Christian  middle  ages. 
Even  St.  Augustin  who  was,  after  Paul,  the  staunchest 
pillar  of  Christianity  and  ardently  preached  asceticism, 
could  not  refrain  from  exclaiming:  "Suppress  the  pub- 
lic prostitutes  and  the  force  of  passion  will  overturn 
everything."  St.  Thomas  Aquin,  who  is  still  considered 
the  greatest  authority  on  theology,  has  expressed  the 
same  opinion  more  forcibly  still  by  saying:  "Prostitu- 
tion in  the  cities  is  like  the  cess-pool  in  the  palace;  if 
you  remove  the  cess-pool  the  palace  will  become  an  un- 
clean and  evil  smelling  place."  The  provincial  council 
at  Milan  in  1665  held  the  same  view.  But  let  us  consult 
some  modern  opinions. 

Dr.  F.  S.  Huegel  says:  "Advancing  civilization  will 
gradually  clothe  prostitution  in  more  pleasing  forms,  but 
only  with  the  destruction  of  the  world  will  it  come  to  an 
end  !"*  That  is  a  bold  assertion,  but  whoever  cannot 
think  beyond  the  form  of  bourgeois  society,  whoever  does 
not  admit  that  society  will  transform  itself  to  attain 
healthful  and  natural  conditions,  must  agree  with  Dr. 
Huegel.  M.  Rubner,  an  authority  on  hygiene,  professor 
at  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  director  of  the  Hygienic 
Institute,  expresses  a  similar  opinion.  He  says :  "Pros- 
titution of  women  has  existed  at  all  times  and  among  all 
peoples.  It  is  indestructable  because  it  serves  the  sexual 
impulse  and  springs  from  human  nature  and  because  in 
many  cases  the  tendency  to  prostitution  is  due  to  an 
inate  vice  of  some  women.  Just  as  we  find  in  every  popu- 
lation geniuses  beside  idiots,  giants  besides  dwarfs,  and 
other  abnormities,  so  we  also  find  by  the  chance  of  birth 
abnormities  which  must  lead  to  prostitution."** 

None  of  the  above-named  conceive  the  thought  that  a 
different  social  order  might  remove  the  causes  of  prosti- 


*F.  Huegel. — History,  Statistics  and  Regulation  of  Prostitution  in 
Vienna,  1865. 
**Max  Rubner— Text  Book  of  Hygienne.     Leipsic,  1907. 


176      Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

tution,  and  none  seek  to  investigate  the  causes.  Some 
who  take  up  this  problem  faintly  recognize  that  unfor- 
tunate social  conditions,  weighing  heavily  upon  countless 
women,  might  be  the  chief  cause  why  so  many  sell  their 
bodies.  But  they  do  not  draw  the  conclusion  that  if  this 
be  the  case,  it  becomes  necessary  to  bring  about  different 
social  conditions.  Among  the  few  who  recognize  that 
economic  conditions  form  the  chief  cause  of  prostitution 
is  Th.  Bade.*  He  says :  "The  causes  of  the  boundless 
moral  degradation  from  which  the  prostitute  girls  emerge 
are  founded  on  social  conditions.  They  are  especially 
due  to  the  decline  of  the  middle  classes,  particularly  the 
artisan  class,  among  whom  only  very  few  continue  to 
ply  their  trade  independently."  Bade  concludes  his  ob- 
servations by  saying:  "Material  need  which  has  de- 
stroyed many  middle  class  families  and  continues  to  de- 
stroy them  also  leads  to  their  moral  degradation,  espe- 
cially to  that  of  the  female  sex."** 

But  prostitution  is  not  an  institution  of  nature  that,  as 
R.  Schmoelder  says :  "Will  remain  a  constant  companion 
of  humanity ,"t  it  is  a  social  institution  without  which 
we  cannot  conceive  bourgeois  society. 

The  police  physician  of  Leipsic,  Dr.  J.  Kuehn,  says: 
"Prostitution  is  not  only  a  bearable,  but  a  necessary  evil. 
It  protects  women  from  adultery  (which  only  men  have 
a  right  to  commit — the  author)  and  guards  virtue  (of 
course  the  virtue  of  women  because  men  are  not  required 
to  be  virtuous — the  author)  against  assault  and  destruc- 
tion."^ These  words  grossly  characterize  the  incarnate 
selfishness  of  men.  Kuehn  maintains  the  correct  position 

*H.  Bade.    Procurers  and  public  dance  halls. 

**Statistics  gathered  by  the  Berlin  police  in  1871-72  concerning  the 
parentage  of  2,224  enrolled  prostitutes  showed  the  following  figures : 
1,015  equal  47.9  per  cent,  came  from  the  artisan  class;  467  equal 
22.0  per  cent,  were  daughters  of  factory  laborers ;  305  equal  14.4  per 
cent,  of  minor  officials;  222  equal  10.4  per  cent,  of  merchants,  etc.; 
37  equal  4.1  per  cent,  of  farmers,  and  26  equal  1.2  per  cent  of  mili- 
tary men.  With  102  the  father's  profession  could  not  be  determined. 

fR.  Schmoelder,  Punishment  of  fornication  as  a  trade. 

ffj.  Kuehn.  Prostitution  in  the  nineteenth  century  from  the  stand- 
point of  police  sanitation. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  177 

of  a  police  physician,  whose  duty  it  is  to  guard  men 
against  unpleasant  diseases  by  the  police  surveillance  of 
prostitution.  Only  the  man  is  taken  into  consideration 
to  whom  celibacy  is  horrible  and  a  torture,  but  the  mil- 
lions of  women  doomed  to  celibacy  must  content  them- 
selves. What  is  considered  right  in  the  man's  case,  is 
considered  wrong,  immoral  and  criminal  in  the  woman's. 

Another  interesting  gentleman  is  Dr.  Fock,  who  re- 
gards prostitution  as  a  "necessary  correlation  of  our  civ- 
ilization."* He  fears  an  overproduction  of  human  beings 
if  all  persons  should  marry  after  having  attained 
maturity,  and  therefore  considers  it  important  that  pros- 
titution should  be  regulated  by  the  state.  He  considers 
police  surveillance  of  prostitution  justifiable,  and  that  the 
State  should  furnish  men  with  prostitutes  who  are  free 
from  syphilis.  He  declares  himself  in  favor  of  closest 
surveillance  of  all  women  who  can  be  convicted  of  lead- 
ing a  disorderly  life.  But  can  this  surveillance  be  car- 
ried out,  if  ladies  leading  a  disorderly  life  belong  to  the 
upper  classes?  It  is  the  old  story.  Dr.  Fock  also  recom- 
mends that  a  tax  should  be  levied  upon  prostitutes  and 
that  they  should  be  confined  to  certain  streets.  In  other 
words,  the  Christian  state  should  make  prostitution  a 
source  of  income  by  state  organization  and  protection 
of  vice  in  the  interest  of  men. 

Dr.  Henry  Severus,**  who  also  favors  legal  recognition 
of  prostitution  maintains  an  original  point  of  view.  He 
regards  it  as  a  useful  institution,  because  it  is  a  necessary 
correlation  of  marriage,  and  that  without  it  the  free 
choice  in  marriage  would  be  impaired.  According  to  him 
prostitution  is  a  sort  of  safety-valve  of  bourgeois  society. 
He  claims:  "Much  of  the  poverty  that  leads  to  such 
deplorable  social  conditions  may  be  traced  to  the  fact, 
that  marriages  are  recklessly  contracted,  without  ques- 
tioning how  the  necessary  means  of  livelihood  might  be 
obtained.  It  is  in  the  interest  of  the  state,  that  such 
marriages  should  not  be  contracted,  for  the  children  that 
spring  from  them  cannot  be  sufficiently  provided  for  by 


*Dr.  Fock — Prostitution  in  its  ethical  and  sanitary  aspect. 
**Dr.  H.  Severns — Prostitution  and  the  state. 


178       Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

their  parents,  nor  do  they  belong  in  the  foundling  hos- 
pital, being  legitimate  children,  and  thus  become  a  peril 
to  society.  "Prostitution,"  he  goes  on  to  say,  "prevents 
that  the  force  of  natural  instinct  should  lead  to  the  con- 
tracting of  marriages  that  result  in  an  increase  of  those 
elements  of  the  population  who,  owing  to  lack  of  educa- 
tion and  an  unfortunate  childhood,  developes  sentiments 
that  are  hostile  to  the  state  and  become  enemies  of 
society."  So  according  to  this,  state  regulation  of  vice 
furnishes  a  protection  and  a  remedy  against  socialism — a 
view  that  may  at  least  lay  claim  to  originality. 

So  we  may  reiterate  our  assertion,  prostitution  is 
a  necessary  social  institution  of  bourgeois  society,  just  as 
the  police,  the  standing  army,  the  church  and  the  capi- 
talist class. 

2.  Prostitution  and  the  State. 

State  supervision  and  organization  of  prostitution  does 
not  exist  in  the  German  empire  as  it  does  in  France; 
prostitution  is  merely  tolerated.  Disorderly  houses  are 
prohibited  by  law  and  procurers  may  be  severely  pun- 
ished. But  notwithstanding  these  laws  in  many  German 
cities,  among  others  in  Mayence,  Magdeburg,  Altona, 
Kiel,  Nuremberg,  Worms,  Freiburg,  Leipsic,  Regens- 
burg,  Hamburg,  Augsburg,  Wuerzburg,  disorderly 
houses  exist  that  are  tolerated  by  the  police.*  This 
seems  an  incredible  state  of  affairs  and  its  contradic- 
tion to  the  laws  must  be  well  known  to  our  government 
officials.  According  to  German  law,  persons  renting  an 
apartment  to  a  prostitute  are  subject  to  punishment.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  police  are  obliged  to  tolerate  thou- 
sands of  prostitutes  and  to  protect  them  in  their  trade 
if  they  submit  to  the  prescribed  rules,  for  instance,  to 
regular  examination  by  a  physician.  But  if  the  state 
makes  concessions  to  prostitutes  and  supports  them  in 
the  plying  of  their  trade,  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  have 
a  residence  also ;  in  fact,  it  becomes  necessary  to  public 
health  and  order  that  their  trade  should  be  carried  on 

*Paul   Kampffmeyer — Prostitution  as  a  social   class  phenomenon 
and  the  social  and  political  struggle  against  it. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  179 

in  definite  quarters.  What  contradictions!  On  the  one 
hand  the  state  officially  recognizes  prostitution ;  on  the 
other  hand  it  persecutes  and  punishes  prostitutes  and 
procurers.  Moreover,  this  attitude  of  the  state  confirms, 
that  to  modern  society,  prostitution  is  a  sphynx  whose 
riddle  it  cannot  solve.  Religion  and  morality  condemn 
prostitution,  the  laws  punish  it,  and  yet  the  state  tol- 
erates and  protects  it.  In  other  words,  our  society  that 
prides  itself  on  its  morality,  its  piety,  its  civilization  and 
culture  must  suffer  itself  to  be  polluted  by  the  slow  poi- 
son of  immorality  and  corruption.  Still  another  conclusion 
follows  from  these  conditions :  the  Christian  state  admits 
that  marriage  is  insufficient  and  that  the  man  is  justified 
in  seeking  illegitimate  satisfaction  of  the  sexual  impulse. 
The  woman  is  taken  into  consideration  by  this  same 
state  only,  inasmuch  as  she  yields  to  the  illegitimate 
satisfaction  of  male  lust,  that  is,  becomes  a  prostitute. 
The  police  supervision  and  control  of  enlisted  prostitutes 
does  not  include  the  men  who  mingle  with  the  prosti- 
tutes, which  ought  to  be  a  matter  of  course  if  the  medical 
surveillance  were  to  be  partly  effective  at  least,  quite  dis- 
regarding the  fact  that  justice  demands  that  the  law 
should  be  equally  applied  to  both  sexes. 

This  protection  of  the  man  from  the  woman  by  the 
state  overturns  the  nature  of  conditions.  It  appears  as 
if  men  were  the  weaker,  and  women  the  stronger  sex, 
as  if  women  were  the  seducer,  and  poor,  weak  man  the 
seduced.  The  myth  of  temptation  of  Adam  and  Eve  in 
Paradise  continues  to  influence  our  conceptions  and  laws 
and  sustains  the  Christian  assumption,  that  "woman  is 
the  great  seducer,  the  source  of  sin."  Men  ought  to  be 
ashamed  of  the  pitiable  and  unworthy  part  they  are  play- 
ing, but  it  is  pleasing  to  them  to  be  regarded  as  "weak" 
and  as  "victims  of  seduction"  for  the  more  they  are  pro- 
tected the  more  they  may  sin. 

Wherever  men  come  together  in  great  numbers,  they 
do  not  seem  to  be  able  to  enjoy  themselves  without  pros- 
titution. That  was  seen  among  other  instances  by  the 
occurrences  at  the  rifle  match  in  Berlin  during  the  sum- 
mer of  1890.  These  occurrences  caused  2,300  women  to 
sign  a  petition  to  the  mayor  of  the  German  capital,,  which 


i8o      Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

read  as  follows:  "We  beg  your  honor  to  permit  our 
quoting  what  has  been  reported  in  regard  to  this  festival 
by  the  press  and  other  sources.  These  reports,  which 
we  read  with  the  greatest  indignation  and  disgust,  among 
other  things  thus  described  the  entertainments  provided 
at  the  festival:  'First,  German  Herold,  greatest  Cafe 
Chantant  of  the  world ;  hundred  ladies  and  forty  gentle- 
men; besides  small  variety  shows  and  rifle  ranges  from 
which  exceedingly  obtrusive  women  molested  the  men ; 
furthermore  free  concerts,  where  lightly  garbed  wait- 
resses boldly  and  unrestrained,  with  seductive  smiles 
forced  their  attentions  alike  on  men  and  youths,  on  col- 
lege boys  and  fathers  of  families.  But  the  'lady'  who  was 
almost  nude  and  who  invited  them  to  visit  the  booths 
'The  Secrets  of  Hamburg,  or  a  Night  in  St.  Pauli/  might 
at  least  have  been  removed  by  the  police.  But  the  worst, 
something  that  plain  men  and  women  from  the  provinces 
can  hardly  accredit  to  the  far-famed  capital  of  the  empire, 
was  the  fact  that  the  committee  on  arrangements  had 
permitted,  that  instead  of  waiters,  young  women  in  great 
numbers  were  engaged  as  waitresses  and  bar-maids  with- 
out pay.  We  German  women,  as  mothers,  wives  and  sis- 
ters, frequently  have  occasion  to  send  our  brothers,  hus- 
bands, sons  and  daughters  to  Berlin  in  service  of  the 
fatherland,  and  so  we  beg  your  honor,  trusting  to  your 
influence  as  chief  executive  of  the  national  capital  to  in- 
vestigate these  occurrences  and  to  prevent  a  repetition 
of  these  orgies,  especially  at  the  forthcoming  celebration 
of  the  victory  at  Sedan." 

During  all  large  festivals,  including  the  national  ones, 
when  men  come  together  in  great  numbers,  similar 
scenes  occur.* 

The  German  governments  made  frequent  attempts  to 
do  away  with  the  contradiction  that  exists  between  the 
legal  theories  and  actual  practice  in  regard  to  prostitu- 
tion. They  introduced  bills  among  other  things,  which 
authorized  the  police  to  assign  definite  places  of  residence 

*"When  the  Farmers'  Association  convenes  in  the  Circus  Bush,  or 
large  conventions  are  being  held  in  Berlin,  there  is  a  rise  in  price  of 
human  flesh."  Satyr— Life  at  Night  in  the  Friedrich  Strasse,  Ber- 
lin, 1907. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  181 

to  the  prostitutes.  It  was  admitted  that  prostitution 
could  not  be  suppressed  and  that  it  would  therefore  be 
better  to  limit  it  to  certain  places  and  to  control  it.  Such 
a  law — on  this  all  were  agreed —  would  have  reinstated 
the  public  brothels  that  had  been  officially  abolished  in 
Prussia  during  the  forties  of  the  last  century.  The  intro- 
duction of  these  bills  caused  great  excitement  and 
aroused  much  protest.  It  was  stated  that  the  state  by  ex- 
tending protection  to  vice  spread  the  opinion  that  prosti- 
tution was  not  averse  to  morality  and  was  an  officially 
sanctioned  trade.  These  bills  that  met  with  much  op- 
position in  Parliament,  have  until  now,  remained  un- 
settled. But  their  very  introduction  shows  the  predica- 
ment of  the  state. 

State  regulation  and  control  of  vice  not  only  create 
the  belief  among  men  that  the  state  favors  prostitution, 
it  also  leads  them  to  believe  that  this  regulation  protects 
them  from  disease,  and  this  belief  makes  men  more  reck- 
less and  increases  the  employment  of  prostitution.  Pub- 
lic brothels  do  not  diminish  sexual  diseases,  they  promote 
them,  because  men  become  more  reckless  and  careless. 
To  what  conceptions  the  official  protection  of  brothels 
leads  may  be  seen  from  the  term  applied  to  the  licensed 
prostitutes  in  England,  who  were  called  "Queen's 
women"  because  they  had  obtained  official  recognition 
through  a  law  enacted  by  the  queen.  Experience  has 
taught,  that  neither  the  introduction  of  public  brothels 
under  police  supervision  nor  regular  medical  examination 
insure  safety  from  contagion. 

To  an  inquiry  from  the  woman's  committee  of  Vienna 
for  "combatting  the  state  regulation  of  vice  Dr.  Albert 
Eulenburg  wrote  as  follows:  "In  regard  to  the  question 
of  police  supervision  of  prostitutes  I  fully  share,  as  a 
matter  of  principle,  the  point  of  view  set  forth  in  your 
petition,  though,  of  course  I  recognize  the  practical  diffi- 
culty of  its  immediate  application.  I  regard  this  practice 
which  has  been  introduced  in  most  countries  as  unjust, 
unworthy,  and  moreover  as  entirely  unsuited  to  attain 
the  object  stated  with  any  certain  degree  of  safety."  On 
July  20,  1892,  the  Berlin  Medical  Society  declared  that 


1 82       Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

the  reinstatement  of  public  brothels  would  be  undesir- 
able, both  from  a  hygienic  and  moral  point  of  view. 

The  nature  of  these  diseases  is  such  that  in  many  cases 
it  cannot  be  recognized  easily,  or  at  once,  and  to  attain 
a  certain  degree  of  safety  several  daily  examinations 
would  be  necessary.  But  this  is  impossible,  owing  to  the 
great  number  of  women  in  question  and  the  large  expense 
it  would  entail.  Where  30  to  40  prostitutes  have  to  be 
examined  in  one  hour,  the  examination  is  nothing  more 
than  a  farce,  and  in  the  same  way  one  or  two  weekly 
examinations  are  entirely  insufficient.  Dr.  Blaschko* 
says:  "The  belief,  that  control  of  prostitutes  furnishes 
protection  against  contagion,  unfortunately  is  a  wide- 
spread and  detrimental  error.  Rather  can  it  be  asserted 
that  everyone  who  asociates  with  a  prostitute  or  a  frivol- 
ous girl  faces  a  grave  danger  each  time." 

The  success  of  these  measures  fails  also  because  the 
men  who  carry  the  germs  of  disease  from  one  woman  to 
another  remain  entirely  free  from  control.  A  prostitute 
who  has  just  been  examined  and  found  healthy  may  be- 
come infected  by  a  diseased  man  in  the  very  same  hour, 
and  before  the  next  examination  takes  place,  or  before 
she  herself  has  become  aware  of  the  disease,  she  may 
have  infected  a  number  of  othei  visitors.  The  control  is 
an  imaginary  one.  Besides  the  obligatory  examinations 
by  male  instead  of  female  physicians  deeply  injure  the 
sense  of  modesty  and  help  to  destroy  it  completely.  This 
statement  is  confirmed  by  a  great  many  physicians  who 
perform  such  examinations.**  The  same  is  admitted  even 
in  the  official  report  of  the  Berlin  police  department, 
where  it  says  it  must  be  admitted  that  official  enrollment 


*Handbook  of  Hygiene,  published  by  Th.  Weyl,  M.  D.  Hygiene  of 
Prostitution  and  Venereal  Diseases,  compiled  by  Dr.  A.  Blaschko, 
Berlin. 

**"As  a  matter  of  fact  the  system  of  regulation  does  not  success- 
fully fight  the  venereal  diseases,  nor  even  noticeably  diminish  them. 
The  delusive  feeling  of  safety  given  to  men  makes  them  more  reck- 
less. The  increase  in  the  number  of  correlation  heightens  the  dan- 
ger of  contagion  by  at  least  as  much  as  it  has  been  diminished  by 
the  removal  of  a  few  who  were  seriously  diseased."  August  Forel — 
The  Sex  Question,  Munich,  1907. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  183 

still  increases  the  moral  degradation  of  those  affected 
by  it.*  The  prostitutes  do  whatever  they  can  to  escape 
this  control. 

Another  evil  result  of  these  measures  is,  that  it  is  made 
very  difficult,  indeed  almost  impossible  to  prostitutes,  to 
return  to  a  decent  means  of  livelihood.  A  woman  who 
has  fallen  into  police  control  is  lost  to  society ;  as  a  rule 
she  miserably  perishes  after  a  few  years.  The  fifth  con- 
gress for  combatting  immorality,  held  in  Geneva,  thus 
expressed  itself  forcibly  and  correctly  against  the  state 
regulation  of  vice  :  "The  obligatory  medical  examination 
of  prostitutes  is  a  cruel  punishment  to  the  woman,  for  in 
those  who  are  subjected  to  it  the  last  remnant  of  modesty 
that  may  still  exist  in  the  most  depraved,  is  forcibly  de- 
stroyed. The  state  that  seeks  to  regulate  prostitution 
by  police  control  forgets  that  it  owes  equal  protection  to 
both  sexes,  it  degrades  and  demoralizes  the  woman. 
Every  system  of  official  regulation  of  vice  permits  of  ar- 
bitrary police  rule  and  leads  to  the  infringement  of  per- 
sonal safety  against  arbitrary  arrest  and  imprisonment, 
against  which  even  the  lowest  criminal  is  guarded.  As 
these  encroachments  occur  only  at  the  expense  of  the 
woman,  they  lead  to  an  unnatural  inequality  between  her 
and  the  man.  The  woman  is  degraded  to  a  mere  object 
and  is  no  longer  treated  as  a  person.  She  is  excluded 
from  the  law." 

How  little  police  and  medical  control  avail  has  been 
strikingly  shown  in  England.  Before  the  beginning  of 
official  regulation,  in  the  year  1867,  the  number  of  ven- 
ereal diseases  in  the  army  were,  according  to  a  military 
report,  91  per  1,000.  In  1886,  after  the  regulation  had 
been  in  effect  for  nineteen  years  they  were  no  per  1,000. 
In  1892,  six  years  after  the  regulation  laws  had  been  re- 
pealed they  were  only  79  per  1,000.  Among  civilians  the 
cases  of  syphilis  were  10  per  1,000  during  the  years  1879 
to  1882,  that  was  during  the  years  of  public  regulation. 
After  the  abolition  of  public  regulation,  from  1885  to 
1889  they  were  only  8.1  per  1,000. 


Third  report  of  the  royal  police  department  of  Berlin   for  the 
years  1881  to  1890 


184      Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

The  prostitutes  themselves  were  far  more  affected  by 
the  regulation  laws  than  the  soldiers.  In  1866  there  were 
among  1,000  prostitutes,  121  cases  of  disease.  In  1868 
after  the  law  had  been  in  force  for  two  years  there  were 
202  cases  among  1,000.  After  that  the  number  gradually 
decreased,  but  in  1874  there  still  were  16  cases  more  per 
thousand  than  in  1866.  The  death  rate  among  prosti- 
tutes also  increased  appallingly  during  the  reign  of  that 
law.  When  at  the  close  of  the  sixties  of  the  last  century 
the  English  government  attempted  to  extend  the  regula- 
tion laws  to  include  all  English  cities,  a  storm  of  indig- 
nation arose  among  English  women.  They  regarded  the 
law  as  an  insult  to  their  entire  sex.  The  habeas  corpus, 
they  claimed,  that  fundamental  law  which  guaranteed 
protection  to  every  English  citizen,  was  to  be  abolished 
for  women ;  every  brutal  police  officer  impelled  by  re- 
venge or  other  base  motives,  would  be  permitted  to  at- 
tack the  most  respectable  woman  if  he  suspected  her  of 
being  a  prostitute,  while  the  licentiousness  of  men 
would  not  be  interfered  with,  but  would  on  the  contrary 
be  protected  and  fostered  by  law. 

The  fact  that  English  women  under  the  leadership  of 
Josephine  Butler  championed  the  most  degraded  of  their 
sex,  caused  ignorant  men  to  misconstrue  their  intentions 
and  to  make  insulting  remarks  about  them.  But  regard- 
less of  these  attacks  they  opposed  the  extension  of  the 
obnoxious  law  with  utmost  energy.  In  newspaper  articles 
and  pamphlets  arguments  in  favor  of  it  and  against  it 
were  fully  discussed,  until  its  extension  was  prevented, 
and  in  1886  is  was  repealed.* 


*The  most  reliable  supporters  of  the  women  were  the  English 
workingmen.  In  her  famous  publication  on  "The  History  of  a 
Crusade,"  Josephine  Butler  says:  "We  resolved  to  appeal  to  the 
nation.  In  the  fall  of  1869  we  sent  personal  letters  to  every  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  of  both  houses  and  to  many  other  leaders  of 
political  and  religious  parties.  Of  all  the  replies  received  only  very 
few  expressed  complete  agreement  with  our  point  of  view.  As  we 
obtained  so  little  encouragement  from  those  circles  whose  interest 
we  had  hoped  to  win,  we  turned  to  the  working  class  population  of 
the  country.  I  am  conscious  of  the  fact  that  the  working  class  has  its 
faults  and  is  no  less  devoid  of  egotism  than  other  classes  of  the 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  185 

The  German  police  has  a  similar  power,  and  sometimes 
cases  have  been  called  to  public  attention  in  Berlin,  Leip- 
sic,  Cologne,  Hannover  and  many  other  places,  showing 
that  abuses  or  "misunderstandings"  easily  occur  with 
the  exercise  of  this  power,  but  not  much  is  heard  among 
us  of  an  energetic  opposition  to  such  transgressions.*  In 
Norway,  brothels  were  prohibited  in  1888,  and  in  the  cap- 
ital, Christiania,  the  obligatory  registration  of  prostitutes 
and  the  medical  examination  connected  with  it  was 
abolished.  In  January,  1893,  the  same  ordinance  was 
enacted  for  the  entire  country.  Very  correctly  Mrs.  Guil- 
laume-Shack  says  in  regard  to  state  "protection"  for 
men :  "To  what  purpose  do  we  teach  our  sons  to  respect 
virtue  and  morality  if  the  state  declares  vice  to  be  a 
necessary  evil ;  if  young  men,  before  they  have  even  at- 
tained intellectual  maturity,  are  given  women  stamped 
like  commodities  by  the  public  authorities  as  playthings 
of  their  passions  ?" 

A  man  inflicted  with  a  sexual  disease  may  indulge  in 
unbridled  licentiousness  and  may  infect  any  number  of 
these  unfortunate  beingfs,  most  of  whom  have  been  driven 
by  seducers  or  by  bitterest  need  into  this  abominable 
trade.  The  law  leaves  him  unmolested.  But  woe  to  the 
poor,  diseased  prostitute  who  does  not  immediately  sub- 
mit to  medical  treatment!  The  garrison  towns,  uni- 
versity towns  and  sea  port  towns,  where  many  strong, 
healthy  men  aggregate,  are  the  chief  centers  of  prostitu- 
tion and  its  dangerous  diseases,  which  are  disseminated 
all  over  the  land  and  everywhere  spread  suffering  and  de- 
struction. The  moral  qualification  of  a  great  number  of 

population.  But  I  am  firmly  convinced  that  when  the  people  are 
appealed  to  in  the  name  of  justice  they  almost  invariably . show  a 
loyal  and  reliable  conviction." 

*In  1901  it  occurred  in  Vienna  that  a  French  lady  was  abused 
by  the  police  agent,  Newhofer,  amidst  the  shouts  of  a  mob,  was 
imprisoned  among  prostitutes  and  subjected  to  a  forcible  medical 
examination.  This  case  led  to  five  interpellations  in  the  diet.  In 
IQO2  in  Hamburg  and  Kiel  ladies  were  arrested  as  prostitutes  and 
were  treated  with  brutality.  These  occurrences  led  to  a  gigantic 
meeting  of  protest  in  Hamburg  on  September  8,  that  was  attended 
by  members  of  all  parties. 


1 86      Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

our  students  is  described  in  the  following  manner  in  the 
"Gazette  for  Combatting  Public  Immorality."*  Among  a 
majority  of  the  students  the  views  concerning  moral 
questions  are  appallingly  base,  almost  depraved."  From 
these  circles  that  boast  about  their  "German  spirit"  and 
"German  morals,"  our  public  officials,  prosecutors  and 
judges  are  obtained.  How  bad  matters  must  be,  espe- 
cially among  students,  may  be  seen  from  the  following: 
"In  the  fall  of  1901,  a  large  group  of  professors  and  phy- 
sicians, among  them  leading  men  in  their  professions, 
published  an  appeal  to  German  students,  in  which  they 
called  special  attention  to  the  deplorable  results  of  sexual 
debauchery,  and  also  warned  the  young  men  of  excessive 
indulgence  in  alcoholic  drinks,  which  in  many  cases 
have  a  stimulating  influence  on  sexual  debauchery.  At 
last  people  are  beginning  to  recognize  that  the  policy  of 
silence  is  a  mistaken  one,  and  that  we  must  call  a  spade 
a  spade,  if  we  would  check  an  immeasurable  disaster. 
Among  other  classes  of  society  also  this  warning  should 
not  remain  unheeded. 

The  Biblical  utterance  that  the  sins  of  the  fathers  shall 
be  visited  upon  their  children  applies  in  its  fullest 
measure  to  the  man  afflicted  with  a  sexual  disease;  un- 
fortunately also  to  his  innocent  wife.  "Apoplectic  strokes 
among  young  men  and  women,  forms  of  paralysis  of  the 
spine  and  softening  of  the  brain,  various  nervous  diseases, 
weakening  of  the  eye  sight,  inflammation  of  the  bowels, 
sterility  and  general  debility  are  frequently  due  to  no 
other  cause  than  a  neglected  case  of  syphilis,  that  has,  for 
good  reasons  been  kept  secret.  As  conditions  are  to-day 
ignorance  and  carelessness  transform  blooming  daugh- 
ters of  the  nation  into  weak  and  sickly  creatures  who 
must  pay  with  chronic  diseases  for  the  extravagances  of 
their  husbands  before  and  outside  of  marriage."**  Dr. 
A.  Blaschko  says  among  other  things:  "Epidemics  like 
cholera,  small  pox,  diphtheria  and  typhoid  terrify  the 
people,  because  the  suddenness  of  the  results  are  clearly 


*August  15,  1893,  Berlin. 

**The  detrimental  results  of  prostitution.  Dr.  Oscar  Lassar,  Berlin, 
1892,  August  Hirschwald. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  187 

visible  to  everybody.  But  syphilis  is  regarded  by  society 
with  an  appalling-  indifference.  And  yet  syphilis  is  far 
more  widespread  and  much  more  terrible  in  its  effects 
than  any  of  the  above-mentioned  diseases."*  The  fact 
that  we  regard  it  as  "indecent"  to  discuss  such  matters, 
accounts  for  this  indifference.  Even  the  German  diet 
could  not  bring  itself  to  provide  legally  for  the  treatment 
of  persons  afflicted  with  sexual  diseases  by  means  of  the 
sick  benefit  funds,  as  in  the  case  of  other  diseases.** 

The  poison  of  syphilis  is  the  most  tenacious  and  the 
hardest  to  eradicate  of  all  poisons.  Many  years  after 
the  disease  has  been  apparently  cured  the  evil  results 
frequently  manifest  themselves  in  the  wife  of  the  dis- 
eased or  in  his  new-born  children,  and  countless  sick- 
nesses of  married  women  and  children  are  due  to 
the  sexual  diseases  of  husbands  and  fathers.  In  a 
petition  addressed  to  the  German  Parliament  in  the  fall 
of  1899  by  the  society  "Jugendschutz"  (protection  of  the 
young)  it  was  stated  that  there  are  about  30,000  children 
in  Germany  who  are  blind  from  birth  due  to  contagion 
from  gonorrhoea,  and  that  among  50  per  cent  of  childless 
women,  sterility  is  due  to  the  same  cause.f  As  a  matter 
of  fact  an  alarmingly  large  number  of  marriages  is 
childless,  and  moreover  the  number  of  childless  marriages 
is  increasing.  Feeble-mindedness  and  idiocy  among  chil- 
dren is  also  not  infrequently  due  to  the  same  cause,  and 
many  instances  have  shown  what  disasters  can  be  caused 
with  vaccination  by  a  single  drop  of  blood  inoculated 
with  the  poison  of  syphilis.  The  great  number  of  per- 
sons suffering  from  a  sexual  disease  has  caused  sev- 
eral suggestions  to  be  made  for  the  enactment  of 


Treatment  of  sexual  diseases  in  sick  benefit  fund  institutioons  and 
hospitals,  Berlin,  1890. 

**The  ordinance  of  the  insurance  laws  which  enabled  communities 
to  refuse  the  payment  of  sick  benefits  in  cases  of  sexual  diseases 
was  repealed  by  a  law  on  May  25,  1903,  that  went  into  effect  January 
i,  1904. 

•{•Examinations  in  asylums  for  the  blind  showed  that  the  follow- 
ing number  of  persons  were  blind  from  birth  through  infection: 
Berlin,  21.3;  Vienna,  31;  Breslau,  35.1;  Budapest,  47.9;  Munich,  73.8. 
— Th.  Weyl,  Social  Hygiene,  Jena,  1904. 


1 88      Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

a  national  law  providing  special  treatment  for  persons 
so  afflicted.  But  until  now  no  such  step  was  taken, 
probably  because  one  feared  the  enormity  of  the  evil 
that  would  then  become  manifest.  Medical  authorities 
have  generally  gained  the  conviction,  that  gonorrhoea, 
which  was  formerly  regarded  as  harmless,  is  one  of  the 
most  dangerous  of  these  diseases.  This  disease  con- 
tinues to  act  upon  the  human  system  even  after  it  has 
been  apparently  cured.  As  Dr.  Blaschko  reported  in  a 
lecture  in  Berlin  on  the  2oth  of  February,  1898,  the  medi- 
cal examinations  of  prostitutes  reveal  only  one-fourth, 
or  at  best  one-third  of  the  actual  number  of  cases.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  overwhelmingly  great  majority  of 
prostitutes  are  afflcted  with  this  disease,  while  only  a 
small  percentage  of  the  cases  are  properly  diagnosed.  Of 
those  in  whom  the  disease  is  recognized  it  is  again  only 
a  small  percentage  with  whom  a  permanent  cure  is  ef- 
fected. Here  society  is  confronted  by  an  evil  for  which 
it  has  no  remedy  as  yet,  but  which  is  an  imminent  peril 
to  mankind,  especially  to  its  female  half. 

3.  The  White  Slave  Trade. 

As  the  number  of  men  increases  who  refrain  from  mar- 
riage, be  it  by  choice  or  under  the  pressure  of  circum- 
stances, and  who  seek  illegitimate  satisfaction  of  the  sex- 
ual impulse,  the  temptations  and  opportunities  for  illegi- 
timate satisfaction  increase  likewise.  Because  immoral 
enterprises  yield  high  profits  many  unscrupulous  persons 
are  engaged  in  them,  and  resort  to  the  craftiest  methods 
to  attract  customers.  Every  requirement  of  the  patrons 
according  to  position  and  rank  and  means  is  taken  into 
consideration.  If  the  public  brothels  could  reveal  their 
secets,  it  would  become  known  that  their  inmates,  who 
are  of  lowly  birth,  ignorant  and  uneducated,  but  pos- 
sessed of  physical  charms,  have  intimate  relations  with 
educated  and  cultured  men  who  occupy  prominent  social 
positions.  Here  they  freely  come  and  go,  public  officials, 
military  men,  representatives  of  the  people,  judges, 
the  aristocracy  of  birth  and  finance,  of  commerce  and  in- 
dustry. Many  of  these  men  are  regarded  as  upholders  of 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  189 

public  morality  and  guardians  of  the  sanctity  of  marriage 
and  the  family,  and  some  are  leaders  of  Christian  charit- 
able undertakings  and  members  of  organizations  "to  com- 
bat prostitution."  In  Berlin,  the  owner  of  one  of  these 
establishments  serving  immoral  purposes  even  publishes 
an  illustrated  gazette,  in  which  the  doings  of  his  patrons 
are  described.  In  this  establishment  400  persons  can  be 
seated,  and  every  evening  a  fashionable  gathering  as- 
sembles there,  among  them  (so  the  gazette  tells  us)  many 
members  of  the  aristocracy."  Frequently  well  known 
actresses  and  famed  belles  of  the  demi-monde  are  present. 
The  merriment  reaches  its  height  when  in  the  wee  hours 
of  the  morning  the  proprietors  arrange  an  eel-catching 
tournamentt.  Then  the  fair  patronesses  squat  about  the 
tanks  with  their  clothes  tucked  up  and  try  to  catch  the 
eel,  and  so  forth.  The  police  is  well  aware  of  these 
doings,  but  carefully  refrains  from  interfering  with  the 
amusements  of  fashionable  society.  The  following  circu- 
lar, sent  by  the  management  of  a  Berlin  dancing  establish- 
ment to  fashionable  men,  is  another  shameless  form  of 
pandering.  It  reads:  "The  undersigned  management  of 
the  hunting  establishment  to  whom  you,  dear  sir,  have 
been  recommended  as  a  passionate  hunter,  beg  to  call 
your  attention  to  a  newly-opened  hunting  ground  with  a 
splendid  stock  of  deer  and  to  invite  you  to  the  first  chase 
on  August  26th.  Special  circumstances  make  our  new 
hunting  grounds  particularly  convenient  and  pleasant: 
they  are  located  in  the  heart  of  the  city  and  the  game- 
laws  are  not  enforced."  Our  bourgeois  society  is  like  a 
great  masquerade  in  which  all  seek  to  deceive  one 
another.  Every  one  wears  his  official  gown  with  dignity, 
while  inofficially  he  indulges  his  passions  without  re- 
straint. Yet,  outwardly,  all  feign  decency,  religiousness 
and  morality.  In  no  age  was  hypocrisy  as  widespread  as 
in  ours. 

The  supply  of  women  for  immoral  purposes  increases 
faster  than  the  demand.  Unfavorable  social  conditions, 
poverty,  seduction,  and  the  fact  that  many  women  are 
attracted  by  the  outward  glitter  of  an  apparently  free 
life,  help  to  furnish  victims  from  all  strata  of  society.  In 


i  go       Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

a  novel  by  Hans  Wachenhusen*  we  find  a  characteristic 
description  of  the  conditions  that  prevail  in  the  German 
capital.  The  author  thus  describes  the  purpose  of  his 
novel:  "My  book  especially  tells  of  the  victims  of  the 
female  sex  and  their  increasing  depreciation  as  a  result 
of  our  unnatural  social  conditions,  partly  through  their 
own  fault,  partly  through  a  neglected  education  and  the 
love  of  luxury.  It  tells  of  the  surplus  of  this  sex  that 
makes  the  lives  of  those,  who  are  born  and  grow  up, 
more  hopeless  each  day.  I  wrote  as  a  public  prosecutor 
might  write,  who  had  gathered  data  from  the  life  of  a 
criminal  to  determine  his  guilt.  If  a  novel  is  supposed 
to  be  drawn  from  imagination,  then  the  following  is  not 
a  novel,  but  a  faithful  portrayal  of  life."  In  Berlin  con- 
ditions are  neither  better  nor  worse  than  in  other  large 
cities.  Whether  orthodox  St.  Petersburg  or  Catholic 
Rome,  Christian  Berlin,  or  heathenish  Paris,  Puritan 
London  or  frivolous  Vienna  is  more  nearly  like  ancient 
Babylonia,  it  is  hard  to  determine.  Similar  social  condi- 
tions bring  forth  similar  results.  "Prostitution  has  its 
written  and  unwritten  laws,  its  resources,  its  various 
resorts  from  the  lowliest,  to  the  glittering  palace,  its 
countless  degrees  from  the  lowest  to  the  most  cultured 
and  refined.  It  has  its  special  amusements  and  its  spe- 
cial places  of  meeting,  its  police,  its  hospitals,  its  prisons 
and  its  literature.**  "We  no  longer  celebrate  the  festivals 
of  Osiris,  the  Bacchanalia  and  the  Indian  orgies  in  the 
spring  month,  but  in  Paris  and  other  large  cities  in  the 
darkness  of  night  behind  the  walls  of  public  and  private 
houses,  orgies  and  Bacchanalia  take  place  that  beggar 
description.f 

Under  such  conditions  the  traffic  in  women  assumes 
huge  dimensions.  It  is  carried  on  in  the  midst  of  civiliza- 
tion on  a  large  scale  and  in  a  well  organized  manner,  and 
is  but  rarely  detected  by  the  police.  An  army  of  male 
and  female  jobbers,  agents  and  transporters  carry  on  the 
trade  in  as  cold-blooded  a  manner  as  if  they  were  barter- 


*"What  the  street  engulfs."     Social  novel  in  3  vols.,  Berlin.     A. 
Hoffmann   &  Co. 

**Dr.  Elizabeth  Blackwell— The  Moral  Education. 
fMantegazza — L' Amour  Dans  L'Humanite. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  igi 

ing  a  commodity.  Certificates  are  made  out  that  con- 
tain an  exact  description  and  qualification  of  the  various 
''pieces"  and  are  handed  to  the  transporters  as  a  bill  of 
lading  for  the  customer.  As  with  all  merchandise,  the 
price  varies  according  to  the  quality,  and  the  "goods"  are 
assorted  and  shipped  from  different  places  and  countries 
according  to  the  taste  and  requirements  of  the  custo- 
mers. By  skilful  manipulations  the  traders  seek  to  es- 
cape the  pursuit  of  the  police,  and  sometimes  large 
sums  are  employed  to  bribe  the  guardians  of  law  and 
order.  A  number  of  such  cases  have  been  revealed  in 
Paris.* 

To  Germany  belongs  the  deplorable  reputation  of 
being  a  market  for  women  to  half  the  world.  The  ramb- 
ling spirit,  which  is  innate  in  the  German  people,  also 
seems  to  affect  a  portion  of  the  German  women,  so  that 
they  furnish  a  larger  quota  to  international  prostitution 
than  the  women  of  other  nations,  with  the  exception  of 
Austria  and  Hungary.  German  women  populate  the 
harems  of  the  Turks  and  the  public  brothels  in  the  in- 
terior of  Siberia  and  as  far  as  Bombay,  Singapore,  San 
Francisco  and  Chicago.  In  his  book  on  travel  "From 
Japan,  through  Siberia  to  Germany,"  the  author,  W. 
Joest,  says  the  following  about  the  German  white-slave 
trade:  "In  our  moral  Germany,  people  often  grow  indig- 
nant over  the  slave  trade  carried  on  by  some  negra  sov- 
ereign in  western  Africa,  or  over  conditions  in  Cuba  or 
Brazil,  while  we  ought  to  consider  the  beam  in  our  own 
eye.  In  no  other  country  of  the  world  white  slaves  are 
bartered  to  the  same  extent,  from  no  other  countries  are 
such  large  quantities  of  this  living  merchandise  shipped 
as  from  Germany  and  Austria.  The  course  taken  by 
these  girls  can  be  clearly  traced.  From  Hamburg  they 


*The  relation  of  the  police  to  prostitution  is  an  interesting  one  in 
more  than  one  respect.  In  1899  it  was  shown  in  a  trial  in  Berlin 
that  a  police  commissioner  employed  a  prostitute  to  watch  and  ques- 
tion a  student  whom  he  suspected  of  being  an  anarchist.  In  Prague 
the  wife  of  a  common  policeman  had  her  license  for  maintaining 
a  disorderly  house  revoked  because  her  husband  had  ill-treated  a 
prisoner.  So  the  police  rewards  its  officers  bv  giving  them  licenses 
for  the  maintenance  of  disorderly  houses.  What  lovely  conditions! 


1 92      Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social.  Institution 

are  shipped  to  South  America,  Bahie,  Rio  de  Janeiro; 
the  greater  part  are  bound  for  Montevideo  and  Buncos 
Ayres,  while  a  few  go  through  the  Straits  of  the  Magel- 
lan to  Valparaiso.  Another  stream  is  directed  over 
England  to  North  America,  but  there  competition  with 
the  domestic  product  is  unfavorable  to  the  trade,  so  the 
girls  are  shipped  down  the  Mississippi  to  Texas  and 
Mexico.  From  New  Orleans  the  coasts  down  to  Panama 
are  furnished.  Other  troops  of  girls  are  sent  across  the 
Alps  to  Italy  and  on  to  Alexandria,  Suez,  Bombay,  even 
to  Hongkong  and  Shanghai,  Dutch  India  and  eastern 
India,  especially  Japan  are  poor  markets,  because  Hol- 
land will  not  tolerate  white  girls  of  this  sort  in  its  col- 
onies, and  because  in  Japan  the  native  girls  are  far  too 
pretty  and  cheap.  Moreover,  the  trade  must  reckon  with 
American  competition  from  San  Francisco.  Russia  is 
supplied  by  eastern  Prussia,  Pomerania  and  Poland.  The 
first  station  is  Riga.  Here  the  dealers  from  St.  Peters- 
burg and  Moscow  assort  their  merchandise  and  send  it 
in  great  quantities  to  Nishny  Novgorod  across  the  Ural 
Mountains  to  Irbit  and  Krestowsky  and  even  into  the 
interior  of  Siberia.  In  Tschita,  for  instance,  I  met  a 
German  girl  who  had  been  traded  in  this  way.  This 
trade  is  thoroughly  organized — agents  and  traveling 
salesmen  carry  on  the  negotiations.  If  the  foreign  office 
of  the  German  Empire  would  ask  its  consuls  for  reports 
on  this  trade  interesting  tables  might  be  compiled. 

That  this  traffic  is  flourishing,  has  been  repeatedly 
stated  by  Socialist  deputies  in  the  German  Parliament. 

Other  centers  of  the  white-slave  trade  are  Galicia  and 
Hungary,  from  where  women  are  sent  to  Constantinople 
and  other  Turkish  cities.  Especially  many  Jewesses, 
who  are  otherwise  rarely  met  with  in  public  brothels  are 
bartered  to  the  Turks.  *  The  prices  for  the  journey  and 
other  expenses  are  usually  paid  the  agents  in  advance. 
In  order  to  deceive  the  public  authorities,  fictitious  tele- 
grams, that  are  not  likely  to  attract  attention,  are  sent  to 
the  customer.  Some  of  these  telegrams  read:  ''Five 
kegs  of  Hungarian  wine  will  arrive  in  Varna  to-mor- 
row," meaning  five  beautiful  girls";  or  "Have  shipped 
three  barrels  of  potatoes  by  S.  S.  Minerva."  This  refers 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  193 

to  three  less  beautiful  girls :  "Common  goods."  Another 
telegram  reads:  "Will  arrive  next  Friday  per  S.  S. 
Kobra ;  have  two  bales  of  fine  silk  on  board." 

4.  The  Increase  of  Prostitution. — Illegitimate 
Motherhood. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  number  of  prostitutes — 
impossible  to  determine  it  exactly.  The  police  may  ap- 
proximately determine  the  number  of  women  for  whom 
prostitution  is  the  sole  or  chief  source  of  income,  but  they 
can  not  determine  the  far  greater  number  of  those  who 
resort  to  prostitution  as  a  partial  support.  Nevertheless 
the  numbers  that  have  been  determined  are  enormous. 
According  to  Oettingen  at  the  close  of  the  sixties  of  the 
last  century  the  number  of  prostitutes  in  London  was 
estimated  to  be  80,000.  In  Paris  on  January  I,  1906,  the 
number  of  enrolled  prostitutes  was  6,196,  but  more  than 
one-third  of  these  manage  to  evade  police  and  medical 
control.  In  1892  there  were  about  60  public  brothels  in 
Paris,  harboring  from  600  to  700  prostitutes ;  in  1900 
there  were  only  42.  Their  number  is  constantly  decreas- 
ing (In  1852  there  were  217  public  brothels).  At  the 
same  time  the  number  of  private  prostitutes  has  greatly 
increased.  An  investigation,  undertaken  by  the  munic- 
ipal council  of  Paris  in  1889,  estimated  that  the  number 
of  women  who  sell  their  bodies  had  reached  the  enorm- 
ous figure  of  120,000.  The  chief  of  police  of  Paris,  Lef- 
rine,  estimates  the  number  of  enrolled  prostitutes  at  6,000 
and  the  number  of  private  prostitutes  at  70,000.  During 
the  years  1871  to  1903  the  police  inhibited  725,000  har- 
lots and  150,000  were  imprisoned.  During  the  year  1906, 
the  number  of  those  who  were  inhibited  amounted  to  no 
less  than  56,196.* 

The  following  numbers  of  prostitutes  were  enrolled 
with  the  Berlin  police:  In  1886,  3006;  in  1890,  4,039;  in 
1893,  4,663;  in  1897,  5,098;  in  1899,  4>544>  and  in  1905, 
3,287.  In  1890  six  physicians  were  employed,  who  per- 
formed examinations  for  two  hours  daily.  Since  then  the 


*Dr.  Licard  de  Planzoles — La  Fonction  Sexuelle.    Paris,  1908. 


1 94      Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

number  of  physicians  has  been  increased  to  twelve,  and 
since  several  years  a  female  physician  has  been  employed 
to  perform  these  examinations,  notwithstanding  the  ob- 
jections of  many  male  physicians.  In  Berlin,  as  in  Paris, 
the  enrolled  prostitutes  only  constitute  a  small  fraction  of 
the  entire  number,  that  authorities  on  this  subject  have 
estimated  to  be  at  least  50,000.  In  the  single  year  1890 
there  were  2,022  waitresses  in  the  cafes  of  Berlin,  who, 
with  very  few  exceptions  were  given  to  prostitution.  The 
yearly  increase  in  the  number  of  harlots  inhibited  by  the 
police  also  shows  that  prostitution  in  Berlin  is  growing. 
The  numbers  of  those  inhibited  were:  In  1881,  10,878; 
in  1890,  16,605;  in  1896,  26,703:  in  1897,  22,915.  In  the 
year  1907  17,018  harlots  were  brought  to  trial  before  the 
magistrates,  which  was  about  57  for  each  day  the  court 
was  in  session. 

How  large  is  the  number  of  prostitutes  throughout 
Germany?  Some  claim  that  there  are  about  200,000. 
Stroehmberg  estimates  the  number  of  enrolled  and  pri- 
vate prostitutes  in  Germany  to  be  between  75,000  and 
100,000.  In  1908  Kamillo  K.  Schneider  attempted  to  de- 
termine the  exact  number  of  enrolled  prostitutes.  His 
table  for  the  year  1905  includes  79  cities.  "As  besides 
these  there  are  other  large  places  in  which  a  considerable 
number  of  girls  may  be  found,  he  believes  15,000  to  be 
a  fairly  correct  estimate  of  the  entire  number.  With 
a  population  of  approximately  60,600,000  inhabitants 
that  means  one  enrolled  prostitute  for  4,040  inhabitants." 
In  Berlin  there  is  one  prostitute  for  608,  in  Breslau  for 
514,  in  Hannover  for  529,  in  Kiel  for  527,  in  Danzig  for 
487,  in  Cologne  for  369,  and  in  Brunswick  for  363  in- 
habitants. The  number  of  enrolled  prostitutes  is  con- 
stantly decreasing.*  According  to  various  estimates  the 
ratio  of  the  number  of  public  controlled  prostitutes  is  to 
the  number  of  private  prostitutes,  as  I  to  5,  or  I  to  10. 
We  are,  accordingly  dealing  with  a  vast  army  of  those 
to  whom  prostitution  is  a  means  of  subsistence,  and  con- 
formably great  is  the  number  of  victims  claimed  by  dis- 
ease and  death. 

*Kamillo  Karl  Schneider — The  Prostitute  and  Society — a  Sociolog- 
ical and  Ethical  Study,  Leipsic,  1908. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  195 

That  the  great  majority  of  prostitutes  grows  thor- 
oughly tired  of  their  mode  of  life,  that  it  even  becomes 
revolting  to  them,  is  an  experience  on  which  all  authori- 
ties are  agreed.  But  very  few  of  those  who  have  fallen 
victims  to  prostitution  ever  find  an  opportunity  to  escape 
from  it.  In  1899  the  Hamburg  branch  of  the  British, 
Continental  and  General  Federation  undertook  an  in- 
vestigation among  prostitutes.  Although  only  few 
answered  the  questions  put  to  them,  these  answers  are 
quite  characteristic.  To  the  question  "Would  you  con- 
tinue in  this  trade  if  you  could  find  some  other  means 
of  support?"  one  replied,  "What  can  one  do  when  one  is 
despised  by  all  people?"  Another  replied  "I  appealed 
for  help  from  the  hospital";  a  third,  "My  friend  released 
me  by  paying  my  debts."  All  suffer  from  the  slavery  of 
their  liabilities  to  the  brothel  keepers.  One  gave  the 
information  that  she  owed  her  landlady  $175.  Clothes, 
underwear,  finery,  everything  is  furnished  by  the  keepers 
at  fabulous  prices ;  they  are  also  charged  the  highest 
prices  for  food  and  drink.  Besides,  they  must  pay  the 
keeper  a  daily  sum  for  their  room.  This  rent  amounts  to 
$1.50,  $2  or  $3  daily.  One  wrote  that  she  was  compelled 
to  pay  her  procurer  from  $5  to  $6  daily.  No  keeper  will 
permit  a  girl  to  depart  unless  she  has  paid  her  debts. 
The  statements  made  by  these  girls  also  cast  an  unfavor- 
able light  on  the  actions  of  the  police,  who  side  more 
with  the  brothel  keepers  than  with  the  helpless  girls.  In 
short,  we  here  behold  in  the  midst  of  Christian  civiliza- 
tion, the  worst  kind  of  slavery.  In  order  to  better  main- 
tain the  interests  of  their  trade,  the  brothel  keepers  have 
even  founded  a  trade  paper  that  is  international  in  char- 
acter. 

The  number  of  prostitutes  increases  at  the  same  rate  at 
which  the  number  of  working  women  increases,  who 
find  employment  in  various  lines  of  trade  at  starvation 
wages.  Prostitution  is  fostered  by  the  industrial  crises 
that  have  become  inevitable  in  bourgeois  society,  and  to 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  families  mean  bitter  need  and 
desperate  poverty.  A  letter  sent  by  the  chief  of  police. 
Bolton,  to  a  factory  inspector  on  October  31,  1865,  shows 
that  during  the  crisis  of  the  English  cotton  industry 


196      Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

caused  by  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States,  the  number 
of  young  prostitutes  increased  more  than  during  the  pre- 
ceding twenty-five  years.*  But  not  only  working  girls 
fall  victims  to  prostitution.  Its  victims  are  also  re- 
cruited from  the  "higher  professions."  Lombroso  and 
Ferrero  quote  Mace,**  who  says  of  Paris:  "The  certifi- 
cate of  a  governess  of  a  higher  or  lower  grade  is  far  less 
an  assignment  to  a  means  of  support  than  to  suicide, 
theft  and  prostitution." 

Parent-Duchatelet  has  at  one  time  compiled  statistics 
which  showed  the  following.  Among  5,183  prostitutes 
there  were  1,441  who  were  driven  to  prostitution  by  ut- 
most need  and  misery.  1,225  were  orphans  and  poor. 
86  had  become  prostitutes  to  support  old  parents,  young 
brothers  and  sisters,  or  their  own  children.  1,425  had 
been  deserted  by  their  lovers;  404  had  been  seduced  by 
officers  and  soldiers  and  had  been  carried  off  to  Paris. 
289  had  been  servant  girls  who  were  seduced  by  their 
employers  and  subsequently  discharged,  and  280  had 
come  into  Paris  to  seek  employment. 

Mrs.  Butler,  the  ardent  champion  of  the  poorest  and 
most  unfortunate  of  her  sex,  says:  "Accidental  circum- 
stances, the  death  of  a  father  or  a  mother,  unemploy- 
ment, insufficient  wages,  poverty,  false  promises,  seduc- 
tion, the  laying  of  snares  may  have  driven  her  into  her 
misfortune."  Very  instructive  is  the  information  given 
by  Karl  Schneidt  in  a  pamphlet  on  "The  Misery  of 
Waitresses  in  Berlin,"*  in  regard  to  the  causes  that  drive 
so  many  of  them  to  prostitution.  He  says  that  a  sur- 
prisingly large  number  of  servant  girls  become  wait- 
resses, which  means  in  nearly  all  cases  that  they  become 
prostitutes.  Among  the  answers  Schneidt  received  to  his 
list  of  questions  that  he  circulated  among  waitresses  are 
the  following:  "Because  I  became  pregnant  by  my  em- 
ployer and  had  to  support  my  child" ;  "because  my  book 
of  references  was  spoiled";  because  I  could  not  earn 
enough  by  sewing  and  such  work" ;  because  I  had  been 

*Karl  Marx,  Capital. 

**Ibid. 

*Berlin,  1893. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  197 

discharged  from  the  factory  and  could  not  find  other 
employment";  "because  my  father  died  and  there  were 
four  younger  ones  at  home,"  etc.  That  servant  girls, 
who  have  been  seduced  by  their  employers,  constitute  a 
large  quota  of  the  prostitutes  is  a  well  known  fact.  Dr. 
Max  Taube*  makes  some  very  incriminating  statements 
concerning  the  great  number  of  seductions  of  servant 
girls  by  employers  or  their  sons.  The  upper  classes  also 
furnish  their  quota  to  prostitution.  Here  poverty  is  not 
the  cause,  but  seduction,  the  inclination  to  lead  a  frivol- 
ous life,  the  love  of  dress  and  enjoyment.  A  pamphlet 
on  "Fallen  Girls  and  Police  Control"**  contains  the  fol- 
lowing statement  in  regard  to  the  prostitutes  from  these 
classes:  "Horror  stricken  many  a  worthy  citizen,  min- 
ister, teacher,  public  official  or  military  man  learns  that 
his  daughter  is  secretly  addicted  to  prostitution.  If  all 
these  daughters  could  be  named  a  social  revolution 
would  have  to  take  place,  or  the  public  ideas  concerning 
virtue  and  morality  would  be  seriously  impaired."  The 
high  class  prostitutes,  the  smart  set  among  them,  are 
drawn  from  these  circles.  A  great  many  actresses  also 
owing  to  a  glaring  disparity  between  their  salary  and  the 
cost  ot  their  wardrobe,  are  compelled  to  resort  to  this  vile 
means  of  support.!  The  same  is  true  of  many  other  girls 
who  are  employed  as  salesladies  and  in  similar  positions. 
Many  employers  are  so  infamous  that  they  seek  to  jus- 
tify low  wages  by  hinting  at  the  assistance  from 
"friends."  Seamstresses,  dressmakers,  milliners,  factory 
workers  numbering  many  thousands  are  subjected  to  the 
same  conditions.  Employers  and  their  assistants,  mer- 
chants, landed  proprietors,  etc.,  frequently  regard  it  as 
their  privilege  to  make  female  workers  and  employees 
subservient  to  their  lusts.  Our  pious  conservatives  like 


*Mnx  Taube.  M.  D. — Protection  of  Illegitimate  Children,  Leipsic, 
1893,  Veit  &  Co. 

**Berlin,  1889,  Wm.  Iszleib. 

fin  a  pamphlet  on  "Capital  and  the  Press,"  Berlin,  1891,  Dr.  F. 
Mehring  relates  that  a  talented  actress  was  employed  at  a  well  known 
theatre  at  a  monthly  salary  of  $25,  while  the  expenses  for  her  ward- 
robe amounted  to  $250  in  a  single  month.  The  difference  was  made 
up  by  a  "friend." 


198      Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

to  point  to  the  rural  conditions  in  regard  to  morality  as 
a  sort  of  ideal  compared  to  the  large  cities  and  indus- 
trial districts.  But  whoever  is  acquainted  with  the  con- 
ditions knows  that  they  are  not  ideal.  We  find  this 
opinion  confirmed  by  a  lecture  delivered  by  the  owner 
of  a  knightly  estate  in  the  fall  of  1889,  which  newspapers 
in  Saxony  reported  in  the  following  manner: 

"Grimma.  Dr.  v.  Waechter,  owner  of  a  knightly  es- 
tate, at  a  meeting  of  the  diocese  which  was  held  here 
delivered  a  lecture  on  sexual  immorality  in  our  rural  com- 
munities, in  which  local  conditions  were  depicted  in  no 
favorable  light.  With  great  frankness  the  lecturer  ad- 
mitted that  the  employers  themselves,  even  the  married 
ones,  frequently  maintained  intimate  relations  with  their 
female  employees,  and  that  the  results  of  such  relations 
were  either  atoned  for  by  a  payment  of  money  or  were 
hidden  from  the  eyes  of  the  world  by  a  crime.  Unfor- 
tunately it  could  not  be  denied,  that  immorality  was  in- 
troduced into  the  rural  districts  not  only  by  country  girls 
who  had  been  employed  in  the  cities  as  wet  nurses  and 
by  boys  who  had  become  demoralized  while  serving  in 
the  army,  but  also  by  educated  men,  by  managers  of 
the  large  estates  and  army  officers,  who  come  into  the 
country  during  manoeuvres.  Dr.  v.  Waechter  claims 
that  here  in  the  country  there  actually  are  few  girls  who 
have  attained  their  seventeenth  birthday  without  having 
fallen."  The  honest  lecturer  had  to  pay  for  his  love  of 
truth  by  being  socially  ostracised  by  the  offended  offi- 
cers. Reverend  Dr.  Wagner  had  a  similar  experience 
when  he  ventured  to  say  some  disagreeable  truths  to  the 
landed  proprietors  in  his  book  on  "Morality  in  the  Coun- 
try."* 

The  majority  of  prostitutes  are  driven  into  their  un- 
fortunate trade  at  an  age  at  which  they  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  competent  to  judge  their  actions.  Among  the 
women  who  secretly  prostituted  themselves  arrested  in 

*At  the  conference  of  the  purity  societies  on  September  20,  1804, 
at  the  instance  of  Dr.  Wagner  an  investigation  was  decided  upon. 
The  results  of  this  investigation  have  been  published  in  two  volumes, 
entitled:  The  Sexual  Morality  of  Protestant  Country  People  in  the 
German  Empire,  1895-1896. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  199 

Paris  from  1878  until  1887,  12,615  equal  46.7  per  cent, 
were  minors.  Of  those  arrested  from  1888-1898,  14,072 
equal  48.8  per  cent,  were  minors.  Le  Pilleurs  gives  the 
following  resume  of  the  prostitutes  of  Paris,  which  is  as 
concise  as  it  is  pathetic :  "Defloured  at  16,  prostituted  fct 
17,  afflicted  with  syphilis  at  18."*  Among  846  newly  en- 
rolled prostitutes  in  Berlin  in  1898  there  were  229  minors. 
There  were: 

7  at  the  age  of  15  59  at  the  age  of  18 

21  "     "      "     "  16  49  "     "      "     "  19 

33  "     "      "     "  17  66  "     "      "     "  20** 

In  September,  1894,  a  scandalous  affair  was  revealed 
in  Budapest,  where  it  became  known  that  about  400  girls 
not  more  than  fifteen  years  of  age  had  become  the  vic- 
tims of  rich  libertines.  The  sons  of  our  "propertied  and 
cultured  classes"  not  infrequently  consider  it  their  right 
to  seduce  the  daughters  of  the  poor  and  then  to  forsake 
them.  These  confiding,  inexperienced  daughters  of  the 
poor,  whose  lives  are  often  devoid  of  all  joy  and  who 
sometimes  have  no  friend  or  relative  to  protect  them, 
easily  fall  victims  to  the  art  of  the  seducer,  who  ap- 
proaches them  with  all  the  temptations  of  pleasure  and 
affection.  Bitter  disappointments  and  despair  and  event- 
ually crime  are  the  results.  Among  2,060,973  children 
born  in  Germany  in  1907  179,178  were  illegitimate.  One 
can  imagine  the  amount  of  care  and  heart-ache  that  the 
births  of  these  illegitimate  children  mean  to  their 
mothers,  even  if  some  of  them  are  legally  married  later 
on 'by  the  fathers  of  their  children.  Infanticide  and  the 
suicide  of  women  are  in  a  great  many  cases  caused  by 
the  misery  and  need  of  forsaken  women.  The  trials  for 
infanticide  present  a  sombre  but  instructive  picture.  In 
the  fall  of  1894  a  young  woman  was  on  trial  in  Krems, 
Austria.  Eight  days  after  her  confinement  she  had  been 
discharged  from  the  lying-in  hospital  in  Vienna,  with 
her  infant  and  penniless,  and  being  desperate  she  had 

*Prof.   S.   Bettman — Medical    Supervision  of  Prostitutes.     Hand- 
book of  the  social  science  of  medicine,  Jena,  1905. 
**Ibid. 


20O       Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

killed  her  child.  She  was  condemned  to  death.  In  the 
spring  of  1899  the  following  was  reported  from  the  pro- 
vince of  Posen :  "On  Monday  last  the  22-year-old  work- 
ing girl,  Katherine  Gorbacki,  from  Alexanderruh,  near 
Neustadt  was  on  trial  for  murder.  During  the  years 
1897  and  1898  the  defendant  had  been  employed  by  the 
Provost  Merkel  in  Neustadt.  As  a  result  of  intimate 
relations  with  her  employer,  she  gave  birth  to  a  daughter 
in  June  last.  The  child  was  placed  with  her  relatives. 
The  provost  paid  $2  for  the  child's  board  during  each  of 
the  first  two  months,  but  then  refused  to  meet  any  fur- 
ther expenses.  As  the  girl  could  not  meet  the  expenses 
for  the  child's  maintenance,  she  decided  to  do  away  with 
it.  On  a  Sunday  during  September  last  she  smothered 
the  child  with  a  pillow.  The  jury  convicted  her  of  mur- 
der in  the  second  degree  and  admitted  extenuating  cir- 
cumstances. The  public  prosecutor  moved  to  inflict  the 
maximum  penalty,  five  years  imprisonment.  The  judge 
.sentenced  her  to  three  years  in  prison." 

Thus  the  seduced  and  forsaken  woman,  disgraced  and 
desperate,  is  driven  to  the  utmost,  and  kills  her  own  off- 
spring. Then  she  is  brought  to  trial  and  is  sentenced  to 
long  periods  of  imprisonment,  or  even  to  death.  But  the 
real  unscrupulous  murderer  is  allowed  to  go  unpunished. 
Perhaps  shortly  after  the  tragedy  he  will  marry  a  girl 
from  some  good  and  righteous  family,  and  will  become  a 
highly  honored  and  pious  man.  Many  a  man  is  held  in 
great  esteem  who  thus  polluted  his  honor  and  his  con- 
science. If  women  had  a  voice  in  the  making  and  admin- 
istration of  the  laws  things  would  be  different.  Evi- 
dently many  cases  of  infanticide  are  never  discovered. 
In  July,  1899,  in  Frankenthal  on  the  Rhine  a  servant  girl 
was  accused  of  having  drowned  her  new-born,  illegiti- 
mate child  in  the  Rhine.  The  public  prosecutor  asked 
all  police  departments  along  the  Rhine  from  Ludwigs- 
hafen  to  the  boundary  of  Holland  to  report  whether  with- 
in a  definite  time  the  body  of  a  child  had  b^en  washed 
ashore.  The  surprising  result  of  this  inquest  was,  that 
the  police  departments  within  the  stated  time  reported 
no  less  than  38  bodies  of  infants  that  had  been  fished 
from  the  Rhine,  but  whose  mothers  had  not  been  found. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  201 

The  most  cruel  system  is  resorted  to,  as  previously 
stated,  by  the  French  legislation,  which  forbids  to  seek 
the  father,  but  instead  maintains  foundling  hospitals. 
The  law  framed  at  the  convention  of  June  28,  1793, 
reads :  "La  nation  se  charge  de  Teducation  physique  et 
morale  des  enfants  abandonnes.  Desormais,  ils  seront 
designes  sous  le  seul  nom  d'orphelins.  Aucunne  autre 
qualification  ne  sera  permis"  (The  nation  undertakes 
the  physical  and  moral  education  of  abandoned  children. 
Henceforward  they  will  be  known  only  by  the  name  of 
orphans.  No  other  designation  will  be  permitted.).  That 
was  a  very  convenient  method  to  men,  for  thereby  they 
could  turn  over  their  individual  obligations  to  the  com- 
munity and  were  spared  from  being  publicly  exposed. 
National  orphan  and  foundling  asylums  were  erected.  In 
1833  the  number  of  orphans  and  foundlings  amounted 
to  130,945.  It  was  estimated  that  every  tenth  child  was 
a  legitimate  one  that  its  parents  wished  to  get  rid  of. 
As  these  children  were  not  properly  cared  for,  their  mor- 
tality was  very  great.  At  that  time  59  per  cent,  died 
during  the  first  year ;  up  to  the  twelfth  year  78  per  cent. 
died ;  so  only  22  from  100  children  attained  the  twelfth 
year.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sixties  of  the  last  century 
tnere  were  175  foundling  asylums;  in  1861  there  were  ad- 
mitted into  these  42,934  enfants  trouves  (foundlings) 
26,156  enfants  abandonnes  (abandoned  children)  and 
9,716  orphans;  together  this  made  78,066  children  who 
were  maintained  at  public  expense.  All  in  all  the  num- 
ber of  abandoned  children  has  not  decreased  during  re- 
cent decades. 

Foundling  asylums  maintained  by  the  state  were  also 
established  in  Austria  and  Italy.  "Ici  on  fait  mourir  les 
enfants"  (here  children  are  made  to  die)  ;  a  monarch  is 
said  to  have  suggested  these  words  as  a  suitable  inscrip- 
tion for  foundling  asylums.  In  Austria  the  foundling 
asylums  are  gradually  disappearing.  At  present  only 
eight  remain,  but  at  the  close  of  the  nineties  of  the  last 
century  these  still  contained  over  9,000  children,  while 
more  than  30,000  children  were  placed  outside  of  the 
asylums.  During  recent  years  the  number  of  foundlings 
has  greatly  decreased,  for  in  1888  there  still  were  40,865 


202      Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

children  who  were  public  charges  in  Austria;  10,466 
were  in  asylums;  30,399  were  placed  in  private  care. 
Their  maintenance  cost  1,817,372  florins.  Mortality  was 
not  as  great  among  the  children  placed  in  asylums  as 
among  those  privately  cared  for;  this  was  especially  so 
in  the  province  of  Galicia.  Here,  during  the  year  1888 
31.25  per  cent,  died  in  asylums — far  more  than  in  the 
asylums  of  other  countries ;  but  of  those  who  were  pri- 
vately cared  for  84.21  per  cent,  died;  a  wholesale  butch- 
ery. It  seems  as  if  Polish  mismanagement  endeavored 
to  kill  off  these  poor,  little  creatures  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible. 

In  Italy  118,531  children  were  admitted  into  asylums 
from  1894  to  1896.  Annual  average:  29,633;  boys:  58,- 
901;  girls:  59,630,  illegitimate,  113,141;  legitimate,  5,390 
(only  5  per  cent.).  How  great  the  mortality  has  been 
may  be  seen  from  the  following  table.* 

1890-1892  1893-1896     1897 

Number   of   children   admit- 
ted      9^549  109,899      26,661 

Died  during  first  year 34>i86  41,386  9,71 1 

Percentage    37.3  37.6  36.4 

Mortality     of     illegitimate 

children  in   Italy 25.0  27.2  23.4 

Mortality  of  legitimate  chil- 
dren     18.0  17.5  15.9 

The  record  was  broken  by  the  foundling  asylum  Santa 
Cosa  dell'  Annunziata  in  Naples,  where  in  1896  of  853 
infants  850  died.  In  the  year  1907  the  foundling  asylums 
admitted  18,896  children.  During  the  years  1902  to  1906 
the  mortality  of  these  unfortunate  little  ones  was  37.5 
per  cent;  that  means  that  more  than  one-third  of  the 
children  maintained  by  the  state  die  during  the  first 
year.**  It  is  a  generally  known  fact,  that  the  rate  of 
mortality  is  always  higher  among  illegitimate  children 
than  among  legitimate  ones.  According  to  Prusian  sta- 

*S.  Turcranji  and  S.  Engel.  The  Foundling  System  in  Italy. 
Quarterly  journal  of  public  hygiene,  1903. 

**Encyclopedia  of  Social  Science ;  3d  edition,  vol.  iv.,  1909.  Article : 
Foundling  Asylums. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  203 

tistics  the  following  number  of  deaths  of  infants  occurred 
for  every  10,000  births. 

1881-1885  1886-1890  1891-1895  1896-1900  1904 

City 211  210  203  195         179 

Legitimate      Country          186  187  187  185         172 

Illegitimate     City....          398  395  3»5  374         333 

Country         319  332  336  336         306 

"It  is  a  striking  fact  which  clearly  shows  the  connec- 
tion between  prostitution  and  the  unfortunate  condition 
of  servant  girls  and  menials  employed  in  the  country, 
that  of  94,779  illegitimate  children  born  in  1906,  21,164 
were  the  children  of  servant  girls  and  18,869  were  the 
children  of  girls  otherwise  employed  in  the  country.  To- 
gether this  made  40,033  or  42  per  cent.  If  servants  em- 
ployed in  the  country  and  female  farm  hands  are  taken 
together,  they  constitute  30  per  cent.,  while  girls  indus- 
trially employed  constitute  14  per  cent  (13,460)."* 

The  difference  in  the  rate  of  mortality  between  legiti- 
mate and  illegitimate  children  is  especially  marked  dur- 
ing the  first  month,  when  the  mortality  of  illegitimate 
children  is  on  an  average  three  times  as  great  as  that  of 
legitimate  children.  Lack  of  care  during  pregnancy  and 
during  the  confinement  and  improper  care  of  the  child 
after  birth  are  the  simple  causes  of  this  great  mortality  of 
illegitimate  children.  Ill  treatment  and  neglect  help  to 
increase  the  number  of  the  victims.  The  number  of  still- 
born children  is  greater  among  the  illegitimate  than 
among  the  legitimate  also.  This  is  probably  chiefly  due 
to  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  mother  to  bring  about  the 
death  of  the  child  during  pregnancy. 

To  this  must  be  added  the  cases  of  infanticide  that  are 
not  found  out  because  the  murdered  child  is  counted 
among  the  still-born.  Bertillion  claims,  that  to  the  205 
cases  of  infanticide  recorded  in  the  legal  documents  of 
France,  should  be  added  at  least  1,500  alleged  still-births 
and  1,400  cases  of  intentional  killing  by  starvation.** 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  legitimate 

*Encyclopedia  of  Social  Science,  1009. 
**Schnapper  Arndt. 


204      Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 


and  illegitimate  children  in  various  European  countries 
for  every  100  still-births. 


During  the  years 

legitimate 

Illegitimate 

Germany  

1891  —  1900 

».I5 

4.25 

Prussia 

I9OO  —  IQO2 

7  02 

A   AI 

Saxony  . 

1891  —  1900 

7    71 

424. 

Bavaria  

1891  —  1900 

2.98 

1.61 

Wurtemberg  

1891  —  1900 

7.-7Q 

^.48 

Baden  

1891  —  1900 

2.62 

Austria  

iSQS  —  IQOO 

2.64 

•*  86 

Switzerland 

l8Q7  —  IQOT. 

•7    4Q 

6  14 

Prance  

1891  —  1895 

4.4O 

7.54 

Netherlands 

1891  —  I9OO 

4.0,8 

8.11 

Denmark 

jgq-i  —  1804 

2.40 

**.2O 

Sweden 

igoi  —  1805 

2.46 

^.^o 

Norway             

1391  —  1900 

2.47 

4.06 

Finland  

1891  —  1900 

2.54 

4-43 

Italy 

!89i  —  1896 

3.89 

5.16* 

The  survivors  revenge  themselves  on  society  for  the 
ill-treatment  accorded  them  by  furnishing  an  unusually 
high  percentage  of  the  criminals  of  all  grades. 

5.  Crimes  Against  Morality  and  Sexual  Diseases. 

We  must  still  briefly  dwell  upon  another  evil  that  is 
often  met  with.  An  excess  of  sexual  enjoyment  is  far 
more  harmful  than  the  want  of  same.  An  organism 
abused  by  excesses  is  eventually  destroyed.  Impotence, 
sterility,  idiocy,  feeble  mindedness  and  other  diseases 
result.  Temperance  in  sexual  intercourse  is  as  necessary 
as  temperance  in  eating  and  drinking,  and  other  human 
requirements.  But  young  men  living  in  luxury  seem 
to  find  it  very  difficult  to  be  temperate.  Therefore  we 
often  find  senility  among  young  men  of  the  upper  classes. 
The  number  of  old  and  young  roues  is  large,  and  because 
they  are  satiated  and  dulled  by  excesses,  they  require 
special  stimulants.  Beside  those  in  whom  love  for  their 
own  sex  (sodomy)  is  innate,  there  are  many  who  suc- 
cumb to  this  perversity  of  the  Greek  age.  Sodomy  is 

*F.  Prinzing— The  Causes  of  Still-Births.    General  records  of  sta- 
tistics, 1907. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  205 

far  more  widespread  than  most  of  us  imagine ;  the  secret 
documents  of  many  police  departments  might  reveal 
apalling  facts.*  Among  the  women,  too,  the  perversities 
of  ancient  Greece  have  been  revived.  Lesbian,  or  Sapphic 
love  is,  so  Taxel  claims,  prevalent  to  an  enormous  degree 
among  the  fashionable  ladies  of  Paris.  In  Berlin  about  a 
quarter  of  the  prostitutes  indulge  in  this  perverse  pas- 
sion and  it  is  not  unknown  among  the  fashionable 
women,  either. 

Another  unnatural  satisfaction  of  the  sexual  desire 
are  the  criminal  assaults  upon  children  that  have  greatly 
increased  during  the  last  decades.  The  following  num- 
bers of  persons  were  convicted  of  crimes  against  morality 
in  Germany:  In  1895,  10,239;  in  1905,  I3,432;  in  1906, 
[3>557-  Among  those  were  58  persons  in  1902  and  72  in 
1907,  who  were  convicted  of  criminal  assaults  upon  chil- 
dren. The  following  number  was  convicted  of  fornica- 
tion with  persons  under  fourteen:  In  1902,  4,090;  in 
1906,  4,548;  in  1907,  4,397;.  In  Italy  the  number  of 
crimes  against  morality  was:  1887  to  1889,  4,590;  1903, 
8,461 ;  which  is  19.44  per  cent,  and  25.67  per  cent,  for 
every  100,000  inhabitants.  The  same  fact  has  been  ob- 
served in  Austria.  Very  correctly  H.  Herz  says:  "The 
rapid  increase  in  crimes  against  morality  during  the 
period  1880-1890  shows  that  the  present  economic  struc- 
ture with  its  decrease  in  the  marriage  rate  and  its  insta- 
bility of  employment  is  in  no  small  degree  the  cause  of 
the  low  standard  of  morality."** 

In  Germany  members  of  the  learned  professions  fur- 
nish about  5.6  per  cent  of  the  criminals ;  but  they  furnish 
about  13  per  cent,  of  those  convicted  of  criminal  assaults 
upon  children.  This  percentage  would  be  higher  still  if 
members  of  those  circles  would  not  have  ample  means  to 
conceal  their  crimes.  The  terrifying  revelations  made  by 
the  'Tall  Mall  Gazette"  at  the  close  of  the  eighties  of  the 

*The  trials  of  Moltke,  Lynar  and  Eulenburg  have  since  revealed 
a  more  revolting  picture  than  one  could  suspect.  They  have  shown 
how  widespread  is  this  perversity  among  the  higher  strata  of  society, 
especially  among  military  men  and  in  court  circles. 

**Dr.  Hugo  Herz— Crimes  and  Criminals  in  Austria,  Tuebingen, 
1908. 


206      Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

last  century  concerning  the  criminal  abuses  of  children 
in  England,  have  shown  the  widespread  existence  of 
frightful  conditions.  < 

Concerning  venereal  diseases  and  their  increase,  the 
following  table,  showing  the  number  of  cases  treated  in 
German  hospitals,  contains  valuable  information : 

Gonorrhoea       Syphilis.  Gonorrhoea       Syphilis 

1877-1879.. 23,344      67,750  1892-1894..  50,541       78>°93 

1880-1882..  28,700      79,220  1895-1897..  53,587      74,092 

1883-1885.  .30,038      65,980  1898-1901 .  .83,374     101,225 

1886-1888..  32,275  53,664  1902-1904.  .68,350  76,678 
1889-1891.. 41,381  60,793 

If  we  take  the  average  annual  number  of  persons  af- 
flicted we  find  that  within  a  period  of  25  years  the  cases 
of  gonorrhoea  have  increased  from  7,781  to  22,750  and 
those  of  syphilis  from  22,583  to  25,559.  The  population 
has  increased  only  by  25  per  cent,  while  the  cases  of 
gonorrhoea  have  in  creased  by  182  per  cent  and  those 
of  syphilis  19  per  cent!  We  have  another  statistic  that 
does  not  cover  many  years,  but  just  one  single  day  which 
shows  how  many  patients  afflicted  with  venereal  dis- 
eases were  under  medical  treatment  on  April  30,  1900. 
The  Prusian  minister  of  public  instruction  has  caused 
this  investigation  to  be  made.  A  list  of  questions  was 
sent  to  every  physician  in  Prussia.  Although  only  63.5 
per  cent,  of  these  replied,  the  investigation  showed  that 
on  April  30,  1900,  there  were  about  41,000  persons  in 
Prusia  afflicted  with  venereal  diseases.  11,000  were  newly 
infected  with  syphilis.  In  Berlin  alone  there  were  on 
this  day  11,600  persons  afflicted  with  venereal  diseases, 
among  them  3,000  fresh  cases  of  syphilis.  For  every 
100,000  adult  inhabitants,  the  following  number  were  un- 
der medical  treatment  for  venereal  diseases. 

Men.  Women. 

In  Berlin 1419  457 

"  17  cities  having  more  than  100,000  inhabitants  999  457 

"  42  cities  having  30.000  to  i;x>,ooo 584  176 

"  47  cities  having  less  than  30.000 450  169 

"  other  cities  and  rural  communities 80  27 

In  the  entire  German  Empire 282  92 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  207 

The  cities  mainly  afflicted  are  those  situated  at  har- 
bors, college  and  garrison  towns  and  large  industrial  cen- 
ters (In  Koenigsberg  for  every  100,000  inhabitants,  2,152 
men  and  619  women  are  diseased;  in  Cologne  1309  men 
and  402  women;  in  Frankfort  1,505  men  and  399 
women). 

Of  Berlin  Dr.  Blaschko  says:  "In  a  large  city  like 
Berlin  annually  of  1,000  young  men  between  20  and  30 
years,  almost  200,  abo  t  One-fifth,  become  diseased  with 
gonorrheoa  and  about  24  with  syphilis.  But  the  time 
during  which  young  men  are  exposed  to  venereal  infec- 
tion is  much  longer  than  one  year.  For  some  it  is  five 
years,  for  others  ten  years  and  more.  After  five  years 
of  unmaried  life  then  a  young  man  will  become  diseased 
with  gonorrhoea  once  and  twice  in  ten  years.  After  five 
years  every  tenth  young  man,  after  eight  to  ten  years 
every  fifth  young  man  would  acquire  syphilis.  In  other 
words,  of  the  men  who  marry  after  their  thirtieth  year 
every  one  would  have  had  gonorrhoea  twice,  and  every 
fourth  or  fifth  one  would  be  inflicted  with  syphilis.  These 
figures  have  been  compiled  by  careful  calculation,  and  to 
us  physicians  who  learn  of  so  many  misfortunes  that  are 
concealed  from  the  eyes  of  the  world,  they  do  not  appear 
exaggerated." 

The  results  of  the  research  of  April  30,  1900,  are  con- 
firmed by  a  careful  study  of  this  problem  in  connection 
with  the  Prussian  army  compiled  in  1907  by  the  surgeon- 
major,  Dr.  Schwiening.*  It  was  shown  that  the  various 
divisions  of  the  army  annually  show  about  the  same 
number  of  recruits  afflicted  with  venereal  diseases.  Some 
divisions  have  a  particularly  large  number  of  cases,  espe- 
cially the  division  recruited  from  the  province  of  Bran- 
denburg. Berlin  is  mainly  to  blame  that  2  per  cent,  of 
these  recruits  are  diseased.  Dr.  Schwiening's  compila- 
tion of  the  percentage  of  diseased  recruits  from  the  vari- 
ous government  districts  clearly  shows  the  extension  of 
venereal  diseases  among  civilians.  Of  1,000  enrolled  re- 
cruits the  following  number  was  afflicted : 


*  Director  general  of  the  army  medical  department,  Dr.  Chum- 
burg,  The  Venereal  Diseases,  Their  Nature  and  Dissemination. 


208       Prostitution  a  Necessary  Social  Institution 

1903  1904  1905 

Berlin  40.9  37.2  45.2 

27  cities  having  more  than  100,000  inhabitants 14.9  16.7  15.8 

26  cities  having  50,000  to  100,000  inhabitants...  11.6  9.6  9.5 

33  cities  having  25,000  to  50,000  inhabitants 8.2  6.8  9.  i 

Cities   having  less   than  25,000  inhabitants   and 

rural  communities 4.3  5-O  4-° 

State   7-6  8.1  7-8 

The  greatest  number  of  diseased  recruits  came  from 
Shoeneberg,  having  58.4  for  every  1,000  enrolled.  In 
large  cities  outside  of  Prussia,  the  following  numbers 
were  recorded:  Hamburg,  29.8;  Leipsic,  29.4;  Dresden, 
19;  Chemnitz,  17.8; -Munich,  16.4.  According  to  G.  v. 
Mayer  the  increase  of  venereal  diseases  for  every  1,000 
inhabitants  from  1903  to  1904  was:  Prussia,  19.6;  Austria 
and  Hungary,  60.3;  France,  27.1;  Italy,  85.2;  England, 
125;  Belgium,  28.3;  the  Netherlands  31.4;  Rusia,  40.5; 
Denmark,  45.  The  increase  in  venereal  diseases  is  espe- 
cially great  in  the  navy.  In  the  German  navy  from  1905  to 
1900  the  number  of  cases  were:  On  ship-board  abroad, 
113.6  per  thousand;  in  domestic  waters,  58.8;  on  land, 
57.8.  In  the  English  navy  there  were  in  1905  121,55  cases 
and  in  1906  121,94  cases. 

We  have  seen  that  our  social  conditions  have  produced 
all  sorts  of  vices,  excesses  and  crimes  that  are  constantly 
increasing.  The  whole  social  organism  is  in  a  state  of  un- 
rest by  which  the  women  are  most  deeply  affected.  Wo- 
men are  beginning  to  realize  this  more  and  more  and  to 
seek  redress.  They  demand  in  the  first  place  economic 
independence.  They  demand  that  women,  like  men, 
should  be  admitted  to  all  trades  and  professions  accord- 
ing to  their  strength  and  ability.  They  especially  de- 
mand the  right  to  practice  learned  professions.  Are  these 
endeavors  justified?  Can  their  aims  be  realized?  Will 
they  bring  relief?  These  are  the  questions  we  must  seek 
to  answer. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  209 

CHAPTER    XIII. 

WOMAN  IN  INDUSTRY. 

i.  Development  and  Extension  of  Female  Labor. 

The  endeavor  of  women  to  earn  their  own  living  and 
to  attain  personal  independence  is,  to  some  extent  at 
least,  regarded  as  a  just  one  by  bourgeois  society.  The 
bourgeoisie  requires  an  unhampered  release  of  male  and 
female  labor  power  in  order  that  industry  may  attain  its 
highest  degree  of  development.  The  perfection  of  ma- 
chinery and  the  division  of  labor,  whereby  each  single 
function  in  the  process  of  production  requires  less 
strength  and  mechanical  training  than  formerly,  and  the 
growing  competition,  not  only  between  individual  manu- 
facturers, but  also  between  entire  manufacturing  regions, 
states  and  countries — causes  the  labor  power  of  woman 
to  be  sought  more  and  more. 

The  special  causes  which  lead  to  an  increased  employ- 
ment of  female  labor  in  a  growing  number  of  trades  have 
been  set  forth  in  a  previous  chapter.  One  reason  why 
employers  resort  more  and  more  to  the  employment  of 
women  beside  men,  or  instead  of  men,  is,  that  women  are 
accustomed  to  require  less  than  men.  Owing  to  their 
nature  as  sex  beings,  women  are  obliged  to  offer  their 
labor  power  cheaper  than  men.  They  are,  as  a  rule, 
more  subjected  to  physical  derangements  that  cause  an 
interruption  of  their  work,  and  owing  to  the  complication 
and  organization  of  modern  industry,  this  may  lead  to 
an  interruption  in  the  whole  process  of  production.  Preg- 
nancy and  child-birth  lengthen  such  periods  of  interrup- 
tion.* The  employer  makes  the  most  of  this  fact  and 

*A  number  of  lists  from  sick-benefit  funds,  compiled  by  the  fac- 
tory inspector  Schuler,  showed  that  female  members  were  ill  7.17 
days  annually,  while  male  members  were  ill  only  4.78  days  annually. 
The  duration  of  each  illness  was  24.8  for  female  members  and  21.2 
for  male  members.  O.  Schwartz,  The  results  of  the  employment 
of  married  women  in  factories  from  the  standpoint  of  public  hygiene. 
—  German  quarterly  gazette  for  public  hygiene. 


2io  Woman  in  Industry 

finds  ample  indemnification  for  these  occasional  inter- 
ruptions by  the  payment  of  considerably  lower  wages. 
Moreover  the  woman  is  tied  to  her  particular  abode  or 
its  immediate  environment.  She  cannot  change  her 
abode  as  men  are  enabled  to  do  in  most  cases.  Female 
labor,  especially  the  labor  of  married  women  workers- 
appears  particularly  desirable  to  employers  in  still 
another  way,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  quotation  from 
"Capital,"  by  Karl  Marx  on  page  129.  As  a  worker  the 
married  woman  is  "far  more  attentive  and  docile"  than 
the  unmarried  one.  Consideration  for  her  children  com- 
pels her  to  exert  her  strength  to  the  utmost  in  order  to 
earn  what  is  needful  for  their  livelihood,  and  she  there- 
fore quietly  submits  to  much  that  the  unmarried  working 
woman  would  not  submit  to,  far  less  so  the  working  man. 
As  a  rule  working  women  rarelv  combine  with  their  fel- 
low workers  to  obtain  better  working  conditions.  That 
also  enhances  their  value  in  the  eyes  of  the  employers; 
sometimes  they  even  are  a  good  means  to  subdue  re- 
bellious male  workers.  Women  moreover  are  more  pa- 
tient, they  possess  greater  nimbleness  and  a  more  de- 
veloped taste,  qualities  that  make  them  better  suited  to 
many  kinds  of  work  than  men. 

These  womanly  virtues  the  virtuous  capitalist  ap- 
preciates fully;  and  so,  with  the  development  of  indus- 
try, the  field  of  woman's  work  is  extended  each  year, 
but — and  this  is  the  decisive  factor — without  materially 
improving  her  social  condition.  Where  female  labor 
power  is  employed,  it  frequently  releases  male  laboi 
power.  But  the  displaced  male  workers  must  earn  their 
living;  so  they  offer  their  labor  power  at  lower  wages, 
and  this  offer  again  depresses  the  wages  of  the  female 
workers.  The  depression  of  wages  becomes  a  screw  set 
in  motion  by  the  constantly  revolving  process  of  de- 
veloping industry,  and  as  this  process  of  revolution  by 
labor-saving  devices  also  releases  female  workers,  the 
supply  of  "hands"  is  increased  still  more.  New  branches 
of  industry  counteract  this  constant  production  of  sur- 
plus labor  power,  but  not  sufficiently  to  create  better 
conditions  of  labor.  In  the  new  branches  of  industry 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  211 

also,  as  for  instance  in  the  electrical,  male  workers  are 
being  displaced  by  female  workers.  In  the  motor  fac- 
tory of  the  General  Electric  Company  most  of  the  ma- 
chines are  tended  by  girls.  Every  increase  in  wages 
above  a  certain  standard  causes  the  employer  to  seek 
further  improvement  of  his  machinery,  and  to  put  the 
automatic  machine  in  the  place  of  human  hands  and 
human  brains.  In  the  beginning  of  the  capitalistic  era 
only  male  workers  competed  with  one  another  on  the 
labor  market.  Now  sex  is  arrayed  against  sex,  and  age 
against  age.  Women  displace  men,  and  women  in  turn 
are  displaced  by  young  people  and  children.  That  is  the 
"moral  regime"  of  modern  industry. 

This  state  of  affairs  would  eventually  become  unbear- 
able if  the  workers,  by  organization  in  their  trade  unions, 
would  not  counteract  it  with  all  their  might.  To  the 
working  woman,  too,  it  is  becoming  a  sheer  necessity  to 
join  these  industrial  organizations,  for  as  an  individual 
she  has  still  far  less  power  of  resistance  than  the  work- 
ing man.  Working  women  are  beginning  to  recognize 
this  necessity.  In  Germany  the  following  numbers  were 
organized:  in  1892,  4,355;  in  1899,  19,280;  in  1900,  22,884; 
in  1905,  74,411;  in  1907,  136,929;  in  1908,  138,443.  In 
1892  women  constituted  only  1.8  per  cent,  of  all  members 
of  trade  unions;  in  1908  they  constituted  7.6  per  cent. 
According  to  the  fifth  international  report  of  the  trade 
union  movement  the  numbers  of  female  members  were 
in  Great  Britain,  201,709;  in  Erance,  88,906;  in  Austria, 
46,401. 

The  endeavors  of  employers  to  lengthen  the  work  day 
in  order  to  extract  larger  profits  from  their  workers  is 
met  with  little  resistance  by  women  workers.  That  ex- 
plains why  in  the  textile  industry,  for  instance,  in  which 
more  than  half  of  the  workers  are  women  the  work  day 
is  longest.  It  was  necessary  therefore  that  government 
protection  by  limiting  the  hours  of  work  should  begin 
with  this  industry.  Women  being  accustomed  to  an  end- 
less work  day  by  their  domestic  activity,  submit  to  the 
increased  demands  upon  their  labor  power  without  of- 
fering resistance. 


212 


Woman  in  Industry 


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Woman  at  the  Present  Day 


213 


In  other  trades,  such  as  millinery,  manufacture  of  arti- 
ficial flowers,  etc.,*  they  reduce  their  own  wages  and 
lengthen  their  own  work  day  by  taking  home  extra  work. 
They  frequently  do  not  even  notice  that  thereby  they 
become  their  own  competitors  and  do  not  earn  more  in 
a  sixteen  hour  day  than  they  might  in  a  well  regulated 
ten-hour  day. 

The  table  on  page  212  shows  to  what  extent  female 
labor  has  grown  among  various  civilized  nations,  both 
in  relation  to  the  other  sex  and  in  relation  to  the  entire 
population.  Our  table  shows  that  the  number  of 
women  employed  in  gainful  occupations  constitutes  a 
considerable  percentage  of  the  entire  population.  The 
percentage  is  largest  in  Austria,  France  and  Italy.  This 
may  be  partly  due  to  the  manner  of  census-taking,  as 
not  only  those  female  persons  are  counted,  whose  prin- 
cipal occupation  is  a  gainful  employment,  but  also  those 
who  perform  incidental  work  for  wages.  The  percentage 
is  lowest  in  the  United  States.  It  is  also  important  to 
compare  the  growth  of  the  laboring  population  with 
former  periods.  Let  us  begin  with  Germany: 


Years 
in 
which 
census 
was 
taken 

Entire  Population 

Persons  gainfully 
employed 

Persons 
gainfully 
employed  in 
percentage 
of  population 

Of 
ioo  person 
gainfully 
employed 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

Male  Female 

Male 

Female 

1882 

1895 
1907 

22,150,749 
25,409,161 
30,461,100 

23,071,364 
26,361,123 
31,159,429 

13,415,4155,541,517 
15,531,841  6,578,350 
18,599,236  9.492,88l 

60.57 

6I.I3 
61.06 

24.02 
24.96 
30.37 

71.24 
70.25 

66.21 

28.76 
29-75 
33-79 

This  table  shows  firstly,  that  the  number  of  persons 
gainfully  employed  increases  more  rapidly  than  the  pop- 
ulation;  secondly,  that  the  growth  of  female  labor  still 
exceeds  this  increase;  thirdly,  that  the  male  laboring 
population  is  relatively  stationary,  while  the  female 

*'This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  clothing  trade,  but  also  in  other 
industries  such  as  the  manufacture  of  toys,  underwear,  cigarettes, 
paper  goods  etc."  R.  Wilbrandt  —  Protection  of  working  women 
and  domestic  industry. — Jena  1906. 

**Encyclopedia  of  Social  Sciences. — H.  Zahn,  Statistics  of  profes- 
sions and  trades. 


214 


Woman  in  Industry 


laboring  population  shows  a  relative  and  absolute 
growth,  and  lastly,  that  female  labor  at  an  increasing 
rate  displaces  male  labor.  The  number  of  persons  gain- 
fully employed  has  increased  from  1882  to  1895  by  16.6 
per  cent.;  the  number  of  men,  by  15.8  per  cent,  and  19.35 
per  cent.;  the  number  of  women  by  18.7  per  cent,  from 
1882  to  1895,  and  by  44.44  per  cent,  from  1895  to  1907. 
The  increase  of  the  population  from  1882  to  ^1895  was 
only  19.8  per  cent.,  and  from  1895  to  1907  only  19.34  per 
cent.  So  the  entire  number  of  persons  gainfully  em- 
ployed has  increased ;  but  as  the  growth  of  the  number 
of  men  gainfully  employed  has  approximately  kept  pace 
with  the  growth  of  the  population,  the  number  of  women 
gainfully  employed  has  grown  mostly.  This  shows  that 
the  struggle  for  existence  requires  greater  efforts  than 
formerly. 

From  1882  to  1895  and  from  1895  to  1907  we  find  the 
following  increase  (+)  and  decrease  ( — )  among  the 
population  of  Germany: 

From  1882  to  1895  From  1895  to  1907 

Female  persons  gainfully  employed 
+  1,005,290  =  23.60  per  cent          +  2,979,105  =  56.59  per  cent 

Male  persons  gainfully  employed 
+  2,133,577  =  15-95  per  cent          +  3,077,382  =  19.85  per  cent 

Female  servants 
+       3X,543  =    2-46  per  cent  —       64,574  =    4.91  per  cent 

Male  servants 
—       17,151  =  40.35  per  cent          —        9,987  =  39.38  per  cent 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  persons  gain- 
fully employed  in  various  trades : 


1882 

1895 

1907 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

Agriculture,  Forestry 
Industry  and  Mining 
Commerce  and  Traffic 

5,701,587 
5,269,489 
1,272,208 

2,534,900 
1,126,976 
298,110 

5,539,538 
6,760,102 
1,758,903 

2,753.15* 
1,521,118 
579,6o8 

5,284,271 
9,152,330 
2,546,253 

4,598,986 
2,103,924 
931,373 

Various  kinds  of 

wage  labor    

213,746 

183,836 

198,626 

233,865 

150,791 

320,904 

Public  service  and 

learned  professions 

373,593 

115,272 

618,335 

176,648 

799.025 

288,311 

Army  and  Navy  .  .  . 

542,282 

— 

630,978 

— 

651,194 

— 

Woman  at  the  Present  Day 


215 


The  following  table  shows  the  increase  and  decrease 
in  various  trades : 


From  1882  to  1895 

From  1895  to  1907 

Female 

% 

Male 

% 

Female 

%  \     Male 

% 

Agriculture  and 
Forestry    

+   218,245 
+   394,142 

+   281,498 
+     50,029 
+     61,376 

8.60 
35-00 

98.40 
27.20 
53-25 

+    162,049 
+1,490,613 

+   486,695 
—     15,120 

+    »54,285 
r-    17  ,153 

2.80 
28.30 

38.30 
7.10 

33-25 
39-65 

+1,845,832 
+   582,806 

+   351,765 
+     87,039 
+    111,663 

67.04 
38.31 

60.69 
37.22 

—   255,267 
+2,392,228 

+   787,350 
—     47,835 

+    180,6.0 
+     20,216 

4.61 
35-39 

44.76 
24.08 

Industry  and  Mining 
Commerce  and 
Traffic  

Various  kinds  of 
wage  labor  
Public  service  and 
learned  professions 
Army  and  Vavy    .  . 

Total 

+1,005,290 

23.60 

+2,133,577 

I5.9o|+2,979,io5 

- 

+3,077,382!  — 

Among  the  persons  gainfully  employed  there  were  : 

1895 

1907 

Female 

% 

Male 

% 

Female 

% 

Male 

% 

Indepent   .  .  . 

1,069,007 
39,4i8 

3,745,455 

22.1 

0.81 

77.09 

4,405,039 
582,407 

9,071.097 

31-3 
4.1 

64.6 

1,052,165 
159,889 

6,422,229 

— 

4,438,123 
1.130,839 

i  r,  413,892 

- 

Employees  .  .  .  . 
laborers,  etc., 
excl.  servants  . 

Total  

4.853,880=100.00114,058,543=100.00 

7,634,283=100.00116,982,854=100.00 

The  greatest  number  of  female  persons  were 
in  the  following  trades  : 


The   following   shows   the   increase   and    decrease   of 
women  holding  independent  positions  from  1895  to  1907: 

Industry   (domestic  industry)   477,290    519,492  —  42,202  =    8.10 
Commerce    and    traffic  .......  246,641    202,616  +  44,025  =  21,77 

Agriculture  ..................  328.237    346,896  —  18,659  =    9-O4 

employed 

1895. 
2,745,840 
713,021 
299,829 
427,961 
261,450 
140,333 
36,210 

39>555 
39,222 

30,346 


Agriculture  ....................  4,585,749 

Clothing  and  cleaning  ............  883,184 

Commercial  lines  .................  545,i%7 

Textile   industry  ................  528,235 

Restaurants  and  cafes  ............  339*555 

Articles  of  food  and  luxury  ......  248,962 

Metal  works  ....................  73,039 

Stone  and  pottery  ..............  72,270 

Paper  industry  ...................  67,322 

Wood  and  carving  industry  ......  48,028 


216  Woman  in   Industry 

The  following  are  the  trades  in  which  more  women 
than  men  are  employed  in  Germany : 

Women.  Men. 

Agriculture  4,217,132  2,737,768 

Textile   industry 466,210  390,312 

Clothing  trades 403,879  303,264 

Cleaning  trades 85,684  58,035 

Restaurants  and  cafes 266,930  139,002 

Domestic  service 279,208  36,791 

Nursing   129,197  78,520 

These  figures  clearly  show  us  the  prevailing  state  of 
affairs  in  Germany.  Although  the  number  of  persons 
gainfully  employed  has  increased  more  rapidly  than  the 
population,  the  growth  of  female  labor  still  exceeds  this 
increase.  The  employment  of  women  is  rapidly  growing 
in  all  lines  of  industry.  While  the  male  laboring  popu- 
lation is  relatively  stationary,  the  female  laboring  popu- 
lation shows  a  relative  and  absolute  growth.  In  fact  the 
increase  in  female  labor  constitutes  the  chief  portion  of 
the  general  increase  of  persons  gainfully  employed  in  the 
entire  population.  The  number  of  female  members  of 
families  supported  by  men  rank  from  70.81  per  cent,  in 
1895  to  63.90  per  cent,  in  1907.  Woman  has  become  such 
a  powerful  factor  in  industry  that  the  Philistine  saying, 
the  woman's  place  is  in  the  home,  seems  utterly  void 
and  ridiculous.  In  England  the  following  numbers  of 
persons  were  industrially  employed:  For  every  I00 

persons  gain- 
fully employed 

Total  Male  Female     Male     Fern. 

1871   11,593,466      8,270,186     3,323,280      — 

1881    11,187,564       7,783,646    3,403,918    69.59    3041 

1891   12,751,995      8,883,254    4,016,230    68.09    3l-9l 

1901   14,328,727     10,156,976    4,i7i,75i     70-09    29.91 

Within  thirty  years  the  number  of  men  gainfully  em- 
ployed increased  by  1,886,790  persons  =  22.8  per  cent; 
the  number  of  women  gainfully  employed  increased  by 
848,471  =  25.5  per  cent.  It  is  especially  noteworthy  that 
during  1881,  the  year  of  a  crisis,  the  number  of  men  em- 
parent  one,  since  most  of  the  wives  and  daughters  of 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  217 

number  of  women  employed  increased  by  80,638.  The 
relative  decrease  of  female  labor  in  1901  is  only  an  ap- 
parent one,  since  rriost  of  the  wives  and  daughters  of 
farmers  are  now  counted  as  having  no  profession.  Be- 
sides, during  the  last  twenty  years  those  industries  have 
grown  mostly  in  which  male  labor  is  chiefly  employed, 
while  the  textile  industry  has  relatively,  and  since  1891, 
positively  declined.  Percentage  Female 

of        workers 
increase    among 

1881  these 

Stone  and  pottery  industry. .       582,474       805,185  53  5,006 

Metal   works   and   manufac- 

facture  of  machinery. .      812.915     1,228,504  52          61,233 

Building    trades 764,911     1,128,680  47  2,485 

Textile  trades 1,094,636    1,155,397  5        663,222 

Nevertheless  female  labor  has  again  increased  at  the 
expense  of  male  labor.  Only  the  share  in  increase  of 
female  labor  that  was  12.6  per  cent,  from  1851  to  1861 
and  7.6  per  cent,  from  1871  to  1881  was  reduced  to  1.8 
per  cent,  from  1891  to  1901.  In  the  year  1907  the  follow- 
ing numbers  were  counted  in  the  textile  industry :  407, 
360  men  =  36.6  per  cent,  and  679,863  women  =  63.4  per 
cent.  In  the  clothing  trades  and  in  commerce  female 
labor  has  increased  much  more.  But  it  is  furthermore 
seen  that  older  women  are  displaced  by  younger  ones, 
and  as  women  under  25  are  mostly  unmarried  and  the 
older  ones  are  mostly  married,  or  widowed,  it  is  seen  that 
women  are  displaced  by  girls. 

The  following  are  trades  in  which  more  women  than 
men  are  employed  in  England: 

Women  Men 

Domestic  service 1,690,686     124,263 

Clothing  trades 711,786    414,637 

Textile  trades 663,222     492,175 

Among  these  cotton 328,793     193,830 

wool  and  yarn 153,311     106,598 

hemp  and  jute 104,587      45>732 

silk  22,589        8,966 

embroidery 28,962        9,587 

In  almost  all  the  branches  women  receive  considerable 
less  pay  than  men  for  the  same  amount  of  work.  A  recent 


218  Woman  in   Industry 

inquiry  showed  that  the  average  weekly  wage  in  the  tex- 
tile industry  was  28  shillings  I  penny  for  men,  and  only 
15  shillings  5  pence  for  women.*  In  the  bicycle  indus- 
try where  female  labor  has  rapidly  increased  as  a  result 
of  the  introduction  of  machinery,  women  receive  only 
from  12  to  18  shillings  per  week,  where  men  received 
from  30  to  40  shillings.*  The  same  conditions  are  met 
with  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  goods  and  shoes  and 
in  binderies.  Women  are  paid  especially  low  wages  for 
the  manufacture  of  underwear;  10  shillings  per  week  is 
considered  a  goed  wage.  "As  a  rule  a  woman  earns  half 
or  one-third  of  a  man's  wage."*  A  similar  difference  in 
remuneration  between  men  and  women  is  met  with  in 
the  postal  service  and  in  teaching.  Only  in  the  cotton  in- 
dustry in  Lancashire  both  sexes  working  an  equal  length 
of  time  earned  almost  equal  wages. 

In  the  United  States  we  find  the  following  development 
of  female  labor:  i88o  ^  igoo 

Agriculture 594,5 10  678,884  977>336 

Learned  professions 177,255  311,687  430,597 

Domestic  and  personal 

service  1,181,300  1,667,651  2,095449 

Commerce  and  transpor- 
tation    63,058  228,421  5Q3'347 

Manufacture    631,034  1,027,928  1,312,668 


Total,   women 2,647 J57  M-7    3,914,571  17-4    5.319,397    18.8 

men. 14,774,942  85.3  18,821,090  82.6  23,753,836  81.2 

17,422,099  100  22,735,661  100  29,073,233  100 
Here  we  see  that  the  number  of  women  gainfully  em- 
ployed has  grown  from  3,914,571  in  1890  to  5,319,397  in 
1900.  It  has  increased  more  rapidly  than  the  population 
which  increased  from  62,622,250  persons  in  1890  to  76,- 
303,387  in  1900;  only  by  21  per  cent.  In  the  same  inexor- 
able way  the  number  of  employed  men  is  decreasing, 
since  they  are  being  displaced  by  women.  Now  for  100 
persons  gainfully  employed  there  are  18.8  women,  while 


*  Textile  Trades  in  1906.    London,  1909. 

**  E.  Cadbury  ,C.  Matheson  and  C.  Shaun — Women's  work  and 
wages.     London,  1906. 

•j"  E.  Cadbury  and  F.  Shaun — Sweating.     London.     1907. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day 


219 


in  1880  there  were  not  more  than  14.7  per  cent.  Of  312 
occupations  there  are  only  9  in  which  no  women  are  em- 
ployed. According  to  the  census  of  1900,  we  even  find 
among  them  5  pilots,  45  engineers  and  firemen,  185  black- 
smiths, 508  machinists,  n  well-borers,  8  boilermakers. 
"Of  course  these  figures  are  not  of  great  sociological  im- 
portance, but  they  show  that  there  are  very  few  occupa- 
tions from  which  women  are  absolutely  excluded,  either 
by  their  natural  capacity  or  by  law.*  Women  are  espe- 
cially numerous  in  the  following  occupations:  Servants 
and  waitresses,  1,213,828;  dressmaking,  338,144;  farm 
labor,  497,886 ;  laundresses,  332,665  ;  teachers,  327,905 ;  in- 
dependent farmers,  307,788;  textile  workers,  231,458; 
housekeepers,  147,103  ;  salesladies,  146,265  ;  seamstresses, 
138,724;  nurses  and  midwives,  108,691 ;  unqualified  trades, 
106,916.  In  these  12  occupations  3,583,333  =  74.1  per 
cent,  of  all  bread-earning  women  have  been  counted.  Be- 
sides there  are  85,086  stenographers;  82,936  milliners; 
81,000  clerks;  72,896  bookkeepers,  etc.,  together  19  occu- 
pations, comprising  over  50,000  women  =  88.8  per  cent,  of 
all  women  breadwinners.  Women  predominate  in  the 
following  trades : 

For  every  100  persons  employed. 
Manufacture  of  underwear.  . .  .Women  994. . .  .Men     0.6 


Millinery 

Dressmaking  , 

Manufacture  of  collars, 

Weaving 

Manufacture  of  gloves. 

Bookbinding 

Textile  trades 

Housekeeping , 

Nursing   

Laundry   work , 

Domestic  service 

Boarding   , 

Stenographers , 

Teachers 

Music  teachers  . 


98.0 

96.8 

77.6. 

72.8. 

62.6. 

50.5. 
50.0. 

947- 
89.9. 
86.8. 
81.9. 

834- 
76.7. 
734- 
56.9- 


o.O 
3-2 

22.4 
27.2 
374 
49-5 
50.0 

5-3 

IO.I 

13.2 
18.1 
16.6 

2n 

26.6 


*  Statistics  of  women  at  work.     Washington,  1908. 


22O  Woman  in  Industry 

Of  4,833,630  women  employed  in  gainful  occupations 
aged  16  years  and  more,  3,143,712  were  single,  769,477 
were  married,  857,005  were  widowed,  63,436  were  di- 
vorced. The  American  report  says:  "The  increase  in 
the  percentage  of  persons  gainfully  employed  was  great- 
est for  the  married  women,  since  it  was  by  one-fourth 
greater  in  1900  than  in  1890.  In  1890  there  was  only 
one  married  working  woman  among  22;  in  1900  there 
was  one  among  18."  The  number  of  widowed  and  di- 
vorced women  is  very  great,  both  relatively  and  actually. 
In  1900  among  2,721,438  widowed  women  857,005  =  31.5 
were  earning  their  living,  and  among  divorced  women 
the  percentage  was  still  greater.  Of  114,935,  of  these  49 
per  cent,  were  earning  their  own  living  in  1890  and  55.3 
per  cent,  in  1900.  Thus  more  women  became  self-sup- 
porting each  year.  Among  the  303  occupations  in  which 
women  are  employed  there  are : 

79    w  th    less    than  100  women 


59 

31 

125 

63 


TOO  tO      5OO 

500  to  iboo 


more  1000 

5000     " 

Among  100  persons  from  16  years  up  we  find  the  fol- 
lowing wage-scale: 

Men  Women 

Less  than    7  dollars..  18  Less  than    7  dollars.  66.3 

7  to    9  dollars.  .15.4  7  to    9  dollars..  19.6 

9  to  20  dollars.  .60.6  9  to  15  dollars. .   13.2 

20  to  25  dollars..  4.8  15  to  20  dollars..     0.8 

More  than  25  dollars..  2  20  to  25  dollars.,  o.i 

Average  weekly  wage  $11.16  $6.17 

We  see  that  60.6  per  cent,  of  the  men  earn  more  than 
$9,  while  only  13.2  per  cent,  of  the  women  earn  more 
than  $9,  and  more  than  two-thirds  (66.3  per  cent.)  earn 
less  than  $7.*  The  average  weekly  wage  for  men  is 
$11.16;  the  average  weekly  wage  for  women  $6.17,  almost 
half  of  the  man's  wages.  Among  government  employes 
the  difference  is  equally  great.  Among  185,874  persons 
engaged  in  civil  service  there  were  172,053  men  =  92.6 


*  Earnings  of  wage-earners.  Bulletin  93,  page  u.  Washington,  1908. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  221 

per  cent.,  and  13,821  women — 7.4  per  cent.  In  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  the  seat  of  the  national  administration, 
the  percentage  of  female  labor  amounts  to  29  per  cent. 
And  yet  47.2  per  cent,  of  the  women  earn  less  than  $720, 
while  only  16.7  per  cent,  of  the  men  earn  less  than  $720.* 
In  France,  according  to  the  census  of  1901,  the  laboring 
population  amounted  to  19,715,075  persons,  12,910,565 
men  and  6,804,510  women.  They  are  distributed  among 
various  trades  as  follows : 

Men.      Per  Cent.  Women.  Per  Cent. 

Agriculture  5»5i7»6i7        72        2,658,952        28 

Commerce  1,132,621        65  689,999        35 

Dom'tic  service.    223,861         23  791,176        77 

Learned  prof...    226,561         67  I73»278        33 

Industry   3>695>2I3        63.5      2,124,642        36.5 

"The  female  laboring  population  amounts  to  one-half 
of  the  male  laboring  population."**  As  in  all  other  coun- 
tries, fewest  women  are  employed  at  those  occupations 
that  require  greatest  physical  strength  (In  mining  2.03 
women  for  100  men;  in  quarries  1.65  in  metallurgy,  1.06). 
The  greatest  number  of  women  are  employed  in  the  tex- 
tile trades,  116  women  for  100  men — in  the  clothing 
trades,  in  laundries,  1,247  women  for  100  men,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  underwear  3,286  women  for  100  men.*** 
It  generally  holds  true,  as  Mme.  C.  Milhand  states,  that 
the  greatest  number  of  women  are  employed  in  those  in- 
dustries where  the  hours  of  work  are  particularly  long 
and  wages  particularly  low.  "It  is  a  sad  fact  that  while 
the  industries,  where  the  hours  of  labor  are  short,  only 
employ  a  few  thousand  women,  those  where  the  hours  of 
work  are  long,  employs  hundreds  of  thousands  of  them."t 
In  regard  to  the  wage  scale  E.  Levasseur  says  that  a 
woman's  wage  rarely  amounts  to  two-thirds  of  a  man's 
wage  and  more  frequently  only  to  one-half.tt 

*Executive  civil  service  of  the  United  States.     Washington,  1908. 

**C.  Milhand — L'ouvriere  en  France.    Paris,  1907. 

***E.  Levasseur- — Questions  ouvri^res  et  industrielles  en  France 
sous  la  troisi^me  r£publique.  Paris,  1907. 

•fC.  Milhand — L'ouvri&re  en  France.     Paris,  1907. 

tfE.  Levasseur— Questions  ouvri£res  et  industrielles  en  France 
sous  la  troisiSme  r^publique.  Paris,  1907. 


222  Woman  in  Industry 

2.    Factory  Work  of  Married  Women. — Sweatshop  Labor 
and  Dangerous  Occupations. 

Married  women  form  a  large  percentage  of  working 
women  and  their  number  is  steadily  increasing,  which 
means  a  serious  problem  in  regard  to  the  family  life  of 
the  working  class.  In  1899,  German  factory  inspectors 
were  instructed  to  investigate  the  work  of  married 
women  and  to  inquire  into  the  causes  which  lead  them  to 
seek  employment.*  This  investigation  showed  that  229,- 
334  married  women  were  employed  in  factories.  Besides 
1,063  married  women  were  employed  in  mining  above  the 
ground,  as  was  shown  by  the  report  of  the  Prussian  min- 
ing authorities.  In  Baden  the  number  of  married  work- 
ing women  increased  from  10,878  in  1894  to  15,046  in 
1899,  which  is  31.27  per  cent,  of  all  adult  female  workers. 
The  following  table  shows  the  distribution  of  married 
women  factory  laborers  among  the  various  trades : 

Textile  industry m,i94 

Articles  of  food  and  luxury 39,080 

Stone  and  pottery  industry I9>475 

Clothing  and  cleaning  trades 13,156 

Paper  industry 11,049 

Metal  works 10,739 

Wood  and  carving  industry 5,635 

Polygraphic  trades 4>77o 

Manufacture  of  machinery 4493 

Chemical  industry 4,380 

Various 5,363 

Total 229,334 

Besides  the  textile  industry,  the  manufacture  of  articles 
of  food  and  luxury,  especially  the  manufacture  of  tobacco, 
gives  many  married  women  employment.  Then  comes  the 
paper  industry,  especially  employment  in  work  shops  foi 
the  assorting  of  rags,  and  employment  in  brick  yards. 
Married  women  are  mainly  employed  in  difficult  occupa- 

*Employment  of  married  women  in  factories.  Compiled  from  the 
annual  reports  of  factory  inspectors,  for  the  year  1899  in  the  Home 
Department.  Berlin,  1901. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  223 

tions  (quarries,  brick  yards,  dyeing  establishments,  man- 
ufacture of  chemicals,  sugar  refineries,  etc.),  implying 
hard  and  dirty  work,  while  young  working  girls  under 
twenty-one  find  employment  in  porcelain  factories,  spin- 
ning and  weaving  mills,  paper  mills,  cigar  factories,  and 
in  the  clothing  trade.  The  worst  kinds  of  work,  shunned 
by  others,  are  taken  up  by  the  elder  working  women, 
especially  the  married  ones."* 

Of  the  many  replies  in  regard  to  the  causes  which  lead 
married  women  to  seek  work  only  a  few  need  to  be  men- 
tioned. In  the  district  of  Potsdam  the  main  reason  given 
for  the  factory  labor  of  married  women  was,  that  the 
earnings  of  the  men  were  insufficient.  In  Berlin  accord- 
ing to  the  reports  of  two  inspectors  53.62  per  cent,  of  the 
women  who  helped  to  support  their  families  stated,  that 
the  earnings  of  their  husbands  were  insufficient  to  sup- 
port them.  Similar  information  was  given  by  the  factory 
inspectors  for  the  districts  of  western  Prussia,  Frank- 
fort, on  the  Oder,  Franconia,  Wurtemberg,  Elsatia,  etc. 
The  inspector  for  Magdeburg  gives  the  same  cause  for 
the  majority  of  married  working  women,  but  also  states 
that  some  married  women  must  work  because  their  hus- 
bands are  dissolute  and  spend  all  their  earnings  on  them- 
selves. Others  again,  it  was  reported,  worked  as  a  mat- 
ter of  habit  and  because  they  had  not  been  trained  to  be 
housekeepers.  It  may  be  true  that  these  causes  hold  good 
in  a  minority  of  cases;  but  the  great  majority  of  these 
women  work  because  they  must.  The  factory  inspector 
for  Alsace  states  as  the  main  cause  for  gainful  employ- 
ment of  married  women  in  modern  industry,  the  demand 
for  cheap  labor,  created  by  the  means  of  transportation 
and  by  unrestricted  competition.  He  furthermore  states 
that  manufacturers  like  to  employ  married  women  be- 
cause they  are  more  reliable  and  steady.  The  factory 
inspector  for  Baden,  Dr.  WoerishofTer,  says:  "The  low 
wages  paid  to  women  workers  is  the  main  cause  why 


*"In  the  centers  of  the  weaving  industry  the  percentage  of  married 
women  among  factory  workers  rises  far  above  the  average  26  per 
cent;  for  instance,  in  Saxony- A Itenburg  to  56  per  cent,  and  in  Reuss 
to  58  per  cent." — R.  Wilbrandt,  The  weavers  at  the  present  time. 
Jena,  1906. 


224  Woman  in  Industry 

employers  resort  to  female  labor  wherever  it  can  be  made 
use  of.  Ample  proof  of  this  assertion  can  be  found  in  the 
fact,  that  wages  are  lowest  in  those  industries  in  which 
the  greatest  number  of  women  are  employed.  As  female 
labor  can  be  employed  to  a  great  extent  in  these  indus- 
tries, it  becomes  a  necessity  to  the  working  class  families 
that  the  women  should  seek  employment."  The  factory 
inspector  for  Coblentz  says:  "\Vomen  usually  are  more 
industrious  and  reliable  than  young  girls.  Young  work- 
ing girls  generally  have  an  aversion  against  disagreeable 
and  dirty  work,  which  is  accordingly  left  to  the  more 
unassuming  married  workers.  Thus,  for  instance,  dealers 
in  rags  frequently  employ  married  women." 

That  the  wages  of  working  women  are  lower  every- 
where than  those  of  workingmen,  even  for  equal  work, 
is  a  well  known  fact.  In  this  respect  the  private  employer 
does  not  differ  from  the  state  or  community.  Women 
employed  in  the  railroad  and  postal  service  receive  less 
than  men  for  the  same  kind  of  work.  In  every  community 
women  teachers  receive  a  lower  salary  than  men  teachers. 
This  may  be  explained  by  the  following  causes :  Women 
have  fewer  needs  and  are,  above  all,  more  helpless;  their 
earnings  are  in  many  cases  only  additional  to  the  incomes 
of  fathers  or  husbands,  the  main  supporters  of  the  fam 
ilies;  the  character  of  female  labor  is  amateurish,  tem- 
porary and  accidental ;  there  is  an  immense  reserve  force 
of  female  workers  which  increases  their  helplessness ; 
there  is  much  competition  from  middle  class  women  in 
dressmaking,  millinery,  flower  and  paper  goods  manu- 
factory, etc. ;  women  are  usually  tied  to  their  place  of 
residence.  All  these  causes  make  the  hours  of  work 
longest  for  women  unless  they  are  protected  by  legisla- 
tion. 

In  a  report  on  the  wages  of  factory  laborers  in  Mann- 
heim in  1893  the  late  Dr.  Woerishoffer  divides  the  weekly 
wages  into  three  classes.*  The  lowest  class  comprises 
weekly  wages  up  to  15  marks  ($3-75),  the  middle  class 
from  15  to  24  marks  ($3-75  to  $4),  and  the  high  class 


*Woerishoffer — The  social  status  of  factory  workers  in  Mannheim. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  225 

above  24  marks    ($6).     These  wages  were   distributed 
among  the  workers  as  follows : 

Low  class  Middle  class  High  class 

All  the  workers.  .20.8  per  cent  49.8  per  cent  20.4  per  cent 

Male           "        ..20.9         "  56.2       «  22.9 

Female       "       ..99.2       '•  0.7         "  o.i 

The  majority  of  the  working  women  were  paid  starva*- 
tion  wages,  as  the  following  table  shows : 

marks          ($1.25) 


"    from    5  to  6 

($1.25  to  $1.50)     ' 

($I.50    "    $2.00)       ' 

' 

5-47  ;; 
43.96 

($2.00    "    $2.50)       ' 

27'4I  ','. 

12  "15 
"  more  than  15 

($250  ;;  $3.oo)    ; 
($3.00      $3.50) 
($3.75) 

' 

12.38 
5.3°  " 

0.74    " 

An  inquiry  by  the  department  of  factory  inspection  of 
Berlin  showed  that  the  average  weekly  wages  of  work- 
ing women  was  11.36  marks  ($2.82);  4.3  per  cent,  re- 
ceived less  than  6  marks ;  7.8  per  cent.  6  to  8  marks ;  27.6 
per  cent.  12  to  15  marks;  n.i  per  cent.  15  to  20  marks, 
and  i.i  per  cent.  20  to  30  marks.  The  majority  (75.7  per 
cent)  earn  from  8  to  15  marks.  In  Karlsruhe  the  average 
weekly  wages  of  all  working  women  amounts  to  10.02 
marks.* 

Wages  are  lowest  in  the  domestic  industries  for  both 
men  and  women,  but  especially  for  women,  and  the  hours 
of  work  are  unlimited.  Also  domestic  industry  frequently 
implies  the  so-called  sweating  system.  A  sub-contractor 
distributes  the  work  among  the  workers  and  receives 
for  his  remuneration  a  considerable  amount  of  the  wages 
paid  by  the  employer.  How  wretchedly  female  labor  is 
paid  in  these  sweated  trades,  may  be  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing reports  on  conditions  in  Berlin.  For  men's  col- 
ored shirts,  manufacturers  paid  from  2  to  2%  marks  in 
1889.  In  1893  they  obtained  them  for  1.20  mark.  A 
seamstress  of  medium  ability  must  toil  from  dawn  to 
darkness  to  finish  from  6  to  8  shirts  daily;  her  weekly 
wages  amounts  to  from  4  to  5  marks.  An  apronmaker 
earns  2%  to  5  marks  weekly,  a  tiemaker  5  to  6  marks,  a 
skillful  shirt-waist  maker  6  marks,  a  very  skilled  worker 


*Mary  Baum — Three  classes  of  women  wage-earners  in  industry 
and  commerce  of  the  city  Karlsruhe.    1906. 


226  Woman   in  Industry 

on  boys'  suits  8  to  9  marks,  a  worker  on  coats  5  to  6 
marks.  An  experienced  seamstress  on  fine  men's  shirts 
can  earn  12  marks  per  week  if  the  season  is  good,  and 
if  she  works  from  5  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  10  o'clock 
at  night.  Milliners  who  can  copy  models  independently 
earn  30  marks  monthly;  experienced  trimmers  who  have 
been  working  at  their  trade  for  years  earn  50  to  60  manes 
per  month  during  the  season.  The  season  lasts  five 
months.  An  umbrellamaker  earns  6  to  7  marks  weekly 
with  a  twelve-hour  day.  Such  starvation  wages  drive 
working  girls  to  prostitution,  for  even  with  the  most 
modest  requirements  no  working  girl  can  live  in  Berlin 
for  less  than  9  to  10  marks  per  week. 

All  these  facts  show  that  the  modern  development  of 
industry  draws  away  women  more  and  more  from  the 
family  and  the  home.  Marriage  and  the  family  are  being 
disrupted,  and  so  from  the  standpoint  of  these  facts  also 
it  becomes  absurd  to  relegate  woman  to  the  home  and 
the  family.  Only  they  can  resort  to  this  argument  who 
go  through  life  blindly  and  fail  to  see  the  trend  of  de- 
velopment, or  do  not  wish  to  see  it.  In  many  branches  of 
industry,  women  are  employed  exclusively;  in  a  great 
many  they  constitute  the  majority  of  workers,  and  in 
most  of  the  remaining  branches  women  find  more  or  less 
employment.  The  number  of  working  women  is  steadily 
growing  and  new  lines  of  activity  are  constantly  being 
opened  to  them. 

By  the  enactment  of  the  German  factory  laws  of  1891 
the  work  day  of  adult  women  workers  in  factories  was 
limited  to  eleven  hours,  but  a  number  of  exceptions  were 
permitted.  Night  work  for  women  was  also  prohibited, 
but  here  too  exceptions  were  made  for  factories  that 
run  day  and  night,  and  for  manufactures  limited  to  cer- 
tain seasons.  Only  after  the  international  convention  at 
Bern  on  September  26,  1906,  determined  on  a  night's  rest 
of  eleven  hours  for  factory  workers,  and  after  Socialists 
for  many  years  energetically  demanded  the  prohibition 
of  night  work  for  women  and  the  establishment  of  an 
eight-hour  day,  the  government  and  the  bourgeois  parties 
are  yielding  at  last.  The  law  of  December  28,  1908,  limits 
the  hours  of  work  for  women  to  ten  hours  daily  in  all 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  227 

factories  where  no  less  than  ten  workers  are  employed. 
On  Saturdays  and  on  days  preceding  holidays  the  limit 
is  eight  hours.  Women  may  not  be  employed  for  eight 
weeks  prior  to  and  after  their  confinement.  Their  re- 
admission  depends  upon  a  medical  certificate  stating  that 
at  least  six  weeks  have  elapsed  since  their  confinement. 
Women  may  not  be  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  coke, 
nor  for  the  carrying  of  building  materials.  In  spite  of 
the  energetic  opposition  of  Socialists,  an  amendment  was 
accepted  that  the  controlling  officials  may  permit  over- 
time work  for  50  days  annually.  Especially  noteworthy 
is  the  clause  which  constitutes  a  first  interference  with 
the  exploitation  by  domestic  industry.  This  clause  de- 
termines that  women  and  minors  may  not  be  given  work 
to  take  home  on  days  when  their  hours  of  work  in  the 
factory  have  been  as  long  as  the  law  permits.  Regardless 
of  its  imperfections  the  new  law  certainly  means  progress 
compared  to  the  present  state  of  affairs. 

But  women  are  not  only  employed  in  growing  numbers 
in  those  occupations  that  are  suited  to  their  inferior  phy- 
sical strength,  they  are  employed  wherever  the  exploiters 
can  obtain  higher  profits  by  their  labor.  Among  such  oc- 
cupations are  difficult  and  disagreeable  as  well  as  danger- 
ous ones.  These  facts  glaringly  contradict  that  fantastic 
conception  of  woman  as  a  weak  and  tender  creature,  as 
described  by  poets  and  writers  of  novels.  Facts  are  stub- 
born things,  and  we  are  dealing  with  facts  only,  since 
they  prevent  us  from  drawing  false  conclusions  and  in- 
dulging in  sentimental  talk.  But  these  facts  teach  us, 
as  has  been  previously  stated,  that  women  are  employed 
in  the  following  industries :  The  textile  trades,  chemical 
trades,  metallurgy,  paper  industry,  machine  manufacture, 
wood  work,  manufacture  of  articles  of  food  and  luxury, 
2nd  mining  above  the  ground.  In  Belgium  women  over 
21  are  employed  in  mining  underground  also.  They  are 
furthermore  employed  in  the  wide  field  of  agriculture, 
horticulture,  cattle-breeding,  and  the  numerous  trades 
connected  with  these  occupations,  and  in  those  various 
trades  which  have  long  since  been  their  specific  realm — 
dressmaking,  millinery,  manufacture  of  underwear,  ami 
as  salesladies,  clerks,  teachers,  kindergarten  teachers, 


228  Woman  in  Industry 

writers,  artists  of  all  kinds,  etc.  Tens  of  thousands  of 
women  of  the  poorer  middle  class  are  employed  in  stores 
and  in  other  commercial  positions,  and  are  thereby  almost 
entirely  withdrawn  from  housekeeping  and  from  the  care 
of  their  children.  Lastly,  young,  and  especially  pretty 
women,  find  more  and  more  employment  as  waitresses 
in  restaurants  and  cafes  as  chorus  girls,  dancers,  etc.,  to 
the  greatest  detriment  to  their  morals.  They  are  used  as 
bait  to  attract  pleasure-seeking  men.  Horrible  conditions 
exist  in  these  occupations  from  which  the  white  slave 
traders  draw  many  of  their  victims. 

Among  the  above-named  occupations  there  are  many 
dangerous  ones.  Thus  danger  from  the  effects  of  alkaline 
and  sulphuric  fumes  exists  to  a  great  degree  in  the  manu- 
facture and  cleaning  of  straw  hats.  Bleaching  is  dan- 
gerous owing  to  the  inhalation  of  chloral  fumes.  There 
is  danger  of  poisoning  in  the  manufacture  of  colored 
paper,  the  coloring  of  artificial  flowers,  the  manufacture 
of  metachromatypes,  chemicals  and  poisons,  the  coloring 
of  tin  soldiers  and  other  tin  toys,  etc.  Silvering  of  mir- 
rors means  death  to  the  unborn  children  of  pregnant 
workers.  In  Prussia  about  22  per  cent,  of  all  infants  die 
during  their  first  year  of  life;  but  among  the  babies  of 
working  women  employed  in  certain  dangerous  occupa- 
tions we  find,  as  stated  by  Dr.  Hirt,  the  following  appall- 
ing death-rate ;  mirror  makers,  65  per  cent.,  glass  cutters, 
55  per  cent. ;  workers  in  lead,  40  per  cent.  In  1890  it  was 
reported  that  among  78  pregnant  women  who  had  been 
employed  in  the  type  founderies  of  the  government  dis- 
trict of  Wiesbaden,  only  37  had  normal  confinements.  Dr. 
Hirt  asserts  that  the  following  trades  become  especially 
dangerous  to  women  during  the  second  half  of  their  preg- 
nancy; the  manufacture  of  colored  paper  and  flowers, 
the  finishing  of  Brussels  laces  with  white  lead ;  the  mak- 
ing of  metachromatypes  (transfer  pictures),  the  silvering 
of  mirrors,  the  rubber  industry,  and  all  manufactures  in 
which  the  workers  inhale  poisonous  gases,  such  as  car- 
bonic acid,  carbonic  oxide,  sulphide  of  hydrogen,  etc.  The 
manufacture  of  shoddy,  and  phosphoric  matches  are  also 
dangerous  occupations.  The  report  of  the  factory  inspec- 
tor for  Baden  shows,  that  the  average  annual  number  of 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  229 

premature  births  among  working  women  increased  from 
1039  during  the  years  1882  to  1886  to  1,244  during  the 
years  1887  to  1891.  The  number  of  births  that  had  to  be 
preceeded  by  an  operation  were  on  an  average  1,118  from 
1882  to  1886,  and  1,385  from  1887  to  1891.  More  serious 
facts  of  this  sort  would  be  revealed  if  similar  investiga- 
tions were  made  throughout  Germany.  But  generally  the 
factory  inspectors  in  framing  their  reports  content  them- 
selves with  the  remark:  "Particular  injuries  to  women 
by  their  employment  in  factories  have  not  been  ob- 
served." How  could  they  observe  them  during  their 
short  visits  and  without  consulting  medical  opinion  ?  That 
furthermore  there  is  great  danger  to  life  and  limb,  espe- 
cially in  the  textile  trades,  the  manufacture  of  explosives 
and  work  at  agricultural  machinery  has  been  shown. 
Moreover  a  number  of  enumerated  trades  are  among  the 
most  difficult  and  strenuous,  even  for  men ;  that  can  be 
seen  by  a  glance  at  the  very  incomplete  list.  It  is  very 
easy  to  say  that  this  or  that  occupation  is  unsuited  to  a 
woman.  But  what  can  she  do  if  no  other  more  suitable 
occupation  is  open  to  her  ?  Dr.  Hirt*  gives  the  following 
list  of  occupations  in  which  young  girls  ought  not  to  bfe 
employed  at  all  on  account  of  the  danger  to  their  health : 
Manufacture  of  bronze  colors,  manufacture  of  emery 
paper,  making  of  straw  hats,  glass  cutting,  lithographing, 
combing  flax,  picking  horse  hair,  plucking  fustian,  manu- 
facture of  tin  plate,  manufacture  of  shoddy  and  work  at 
flax  mills. 

In  the  following  trades  young  girls  should  be  employed 
only  if  proper  protection  (sufficient  ventilation,  etc)  has 
been  provided:  Manufacture  of  wall  paper,  porcelain, 
lead  pencils,  lead  shot,  volatile  oils,  alum,  prussiate  of 
potash,  bromide,  quinine,  soda,  peraffine  and  ultramarine 
(poisonous),  colored  paper  (poisonous)  colored  wafers, 
metachromatypes,  phosphoric  matches,**  Paris  green 
and  artificial  flowers.  Further  occupations  on  the  list  are 
the  cutting  and  assorting  of  rags,  the  assorting  and  cut 

^'Industrial  activity  of  women 

**By  an  international  agreement  between  Denmark,  Germany, 
France,  Italy,  the  Netherlands  and  Switzerland  on  Sept.  26,  1906. 
the  use  of  white  phosphorus  in  the  manufacture  of  matches  will  be 


230  Woman  in  Industry 

ting  of  tobacco  leaves,  assorting  of  hair  for  brushes,  clean- 
ing (with  sulphur)  of  straw  hats,  sulphurizing  of  India- 
rubber,  reeling  wool  and  silk,  cleaning  bed-feathers, 
coloring  and  printing  of  goods,  coloring  of  tin  sol- 
diers, packing  of  tobacco  leaves,  silvering  mirrors, 
and  cutting  steel  pins  and  pens.  It  is  certainly  no 
pleasant  sight  to  behold  women,  even  pregnant  women, 
working  at  the  construction  of  railways,  together  with 
men  and  drawing  heavily  loaded  carts,  or  helping  with  the 
building  of  a  house,  mixing  lime  and  serving  as  hod-car- 
riers. Such  occupations  strip  a  woman  of  all  womanli- 
ness, just  as,  on  the  other  hand,  many  modern  occupa- 
tions deprive  men  of  their  manliness.  Such  are  the  re- 
sults of  social  exploitation  and  social  warfare.  Our  cor- 
rupted social  conditions  turn  the  natural  order  upside 
down. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  workingmen  do  not  relish  this 
tremendous  increase  of  female  labor  in  all  branches  of 
industry.  It  is  certain  that  the  extension  of  the  employ- 
ment of  women  in  industry  disrupts  the  family  life  of  the 
working  class,  that  the  breaking  up  of  marriage  and  the 
home  are  a  natural  result,  and  that  it  leads  to  a  terrible 
increase  of  immorality,  deegneration,  all  kinds  of  disease 
and  infant  morality.  According  to  the  statistics  of  the 
German  Empire,  infant  mortality  has  greatly  increased  in 
those  cities  that  have  become  centers  of  industry.  As  a 
result  infant  mortality  is  also  heightened  in  the  rural  dis- 
tricts owing  to  the  greater  scarcity  and  increased  cost  of 
milk.  In  Germany,  infant  mortality  is  greatest  in  Upper 
Palatine,  Upper  Bavaria  and  Lower  Bavaria,  in  some 
localities  of  the  government  districts  of  Liegnitz  and 
Breslau  and  in  Chemnitz.  In  1907  of  every  100  infants 
the  following  percentage  died  during  the  first  year  of 
life:  Stadtamhof  (Upper  Palatinate)  40.14  per  cent.; 
Parsberg  (Upper  Palatinate)  40.06;  Friedberg  (Upper 
Bavaria)  39.28;  Kelheim  (Lower  Bavaria)  37.71;  Munich 
37.63;  Glauchau  (Saxony)  33.48;  Waldenburg  (Silesia) 

forbidden  from  January  I,  1911.  In  Germany  the  manufacture  of 
these  goods  has  been  prohibited  since  Jan.  I,  1907,  and  since  Jan.  I, 
1908,  they  may  neither  be  sold  nor  otherwise  distributed.  In  Eng- 
land a  similar  law  was  enacted  in  1909. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  231 

32.49;  Chemnitz,  32.49;  Reichenbach  (Silesia)),  32.18; 
Annaberg,  31.41,  etc.  In  the  majority  of  large  manufac- 
turing villages  conditions  were  still  worse,  some  of  which 
had  an  infant  mortality  of  from  40  to  50  per  cent. 

And  yet  this  social  development  which  is  accompanied 
by  such  deplorable  results  means  progress.  It  means 
progress  just  as  freedom  of  trade,  liberty  of  choosing 
one's  domicile,  freedom  of  marriage,  etc.,  meant  progress, 
whereby  capitalism  was  favored,  but  the  middle  class  was 
doomed.  The  workingmen  are  not  inclined  to  support 
small  trades  people  and  mechanics  in  their  attempts  again 
to  limit  freedom  of  trade  and  the  liberty  of  choosing  one's 
domicile  and  to  reinstate  the  limitations  of  the  guild  sys- 
tem in  order  to  maintain  industry  on  a  small  scale.  Past 
conditions  cannot  be  revived ;  that  is  equally  true  of  the 
altered  methods  of  manufacture  and  the  altered  position 
of  women.  But  that  does  not  preclude  the  necessity  of 
protective  legislation  to  prevent  an  unlimited  exploitation 
of  female  labor  and  the  employment  in  industry  of  chil- 
dren of  school  age.  In  this  respect  the  interests  of  the 
working  class  coincide  with  the  interests  of  the  state  and 
the  general  humane  interests  of  an  advanced  stage  of 
civilization.  That  all  parties  are  interested  in  such  pro- 
tective measures  has  frequently  been  shown  during  the 
last  decades,  for  instance,  in  Germany  in  1893,  when  an 
increase  of  the  army  made  it  necessary  to  reduce  the  re- 
quired standard,  because  our  industrial  system  had  greatly 
increased  the  number  of  young  men  who  were  unfit  for 
military  service.*  Our  final  aim  must  be  to  remove  the 
disadvantages  that  have  been  caused  by  the  introduction 
of  machinery,  the  improvement  in  the  means  of  produc- 
tion and  the  modern  methods  of  production,  and  so  to 
organize  human  labor  that  the  tremendous  advantages 
machinery  gave  to  humanity  and  will  continue  to  givfc 


*The  following  percentage  of  men  examined  were  found  fit  for 
military  service:  1902,  58.5;  1903,  57.1;  1904,  56.4;  1905,  56.3;  1906, 
55.9;  and  1907,  54.9.  The  following  percentage  had  to  be  discharged 
owing  to  disability  after  they  had  been  enrolled :  from  1881  to  1885, 
2.07  per  cent ;  from  1891  to  1895,  2.30  per  cent ;  from  1901  to  1905, 
2.47  per  cent.  W.  Claassen — The  decrease  of  military  efficiency  in 
the  German  Empire. 


232  Woman  in  Industry 

may  be  enjoyed  by  all  members  of  society.  It  is  prepos- 
terous and  a  crying  evil  that  human  achievements  which 
are  the  product  of  social  labor,  should  only  benefit  those 
who  can  acquire  them  by  means  of  their  power  of  wealth, 
while  thousands  of  industrious  workingmen  and  women 
are  stricken  by  terror  and  grief  when  they  learn  of  a  new 
labor  saving  device,  which  may  mean  to  them  that  they 
have  become  superfluous  and  will  be  cast  out.*  What 
should  be  joyfully  welcomed  by  all  thereby  becomes  an 
obejct  of  hatred  to  some,  that  in  former  decades  fre- 
quently led  workingmen  to  storm  factories  and  demolish 
the  machinery.  A  similar  hostile  sentiment  prevails  to 
some  extent  at  present  between  working  men  and  work- 
ing women.  This  sentiment  is  unnatural.  We  must 
therefore  seek  to  bring  about  a  state  of  society  in  which 
all  will  enjoy  equal  rights  regardless  of  sex.  That  will 
be  possible  when  the  means  of  production  become  the 
property  of  society,  when  labor  has  attained  its  highest 
degree  of  fruitfulness  by  employing  all  scientific  and 
technical  improvements  and  advantages,  and  when  all 
who  are  able  to  work  shall  be  obliged  to  perform  a  certain 
amount  of  socially  necessary  labor,  for  which  society  in 
return  will  provide  all  with  the  necessary  means  for  the 
development  of  their  abilities  and  the  enjoyment  of  life. 

Woman  shall  become  a  useful  member  of  human  so- 
ciety enjoying  full  equality  with  man.  She  shall  be  given 
the  same  opportunity  to  develop  her  physical  and  mental 
abilities,  and  by  performing  duties  she  shall  be  entitled 
to  rights.  Being  man's  free  and  equal  companion  no  un- 


*In  December  1871,  factory  inspector  A.  Redgrave  delivered  a 
lecture  at  Bradford  in  which  he  said  among  other  things:  "My 
attention  has  recently  been  called  to  the  changed  appearance  in  the 
wool  mills.  Formerly  they  were  full  of  women  and  children;  now 
the  machines  seem  to  do  all  the  work.  Upon  my  inquiry  a  manu- 
facturer gave  me  the  following  information :  'under  the  old  system  I 
employed  63  persons;  after  the  introduction  of  improved  machinery 
I  reduced  my  hands  to  33 ;  and  recently,  as  a  result  of  further  great 
improvements,  I  was  able  to  reduce  them  from  33  to  13'."  Within 
a  few  years  then  the  number  of  workers  was  reduced  by  almost  80 
per  cent  while  the  same  amount  of  goods  were  produced. — Further 
interesting  information  on  this  subject  may  be  found  in  Capital 
by  Karl  Marx. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  233 

worthy  demands  will  be  made  upon  her.  The  present 
development  of  society  is  tending  in  this  direction,  and 
the  numerous  and  grave  evils  incidental  to  this  develop- 
ment necessitate  the  introduction  of  a  new  social  order. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education. 

i.    The  Revolution  in  Domestic  Life. 

Although  the  change  in  the  position  of  women  is  ob- 
vious to  all  who  go  through  life  with  open  eyes,  we  still 
continue  to  hear  the  idle  talk  that  the  home  and  the 
family  are  woman's  natural  sphere.  This  cry  is  most 
loudly  raised  wherever  women  attempt  to  enter  the 
learned  professions  to  become  teachers  at  higher  insti- 
tutions of  learning,  physicians,  lawyers,  scientists,  etc. 
The  most  ridiculous  objections  are  resorted  to  and  de- 
fended in  the  guise  of  scientific  arguments.  In  this  re- 
spect, as  in  many  others,  supposedly  learned  men  base 
their  arguments  on  science  to  defend  what  is  most  ridic- 
ulous and  absurd.  Their  main  objection  is,  that  women 
are  intellectually  inferior  to  men;  that  in  the  realm  of 
intellectual  activity  they  cannot  attain  any  noteworthy 
achievements.  Most  men  are  so  prejudiced  in  regard  to 
the  professional  abilities  of  women,  that  whoever  resorts 
to  arguments  of  this  sort  is  sure  to  meet  with  approval. 
As  long  as  the  general  status  of  culture  and  knowledge 
is  as  low  as  at  present,  new  ideas  will  always  be  met  with 
rigorous  opposition,  especially  when  it  is  in  the  interest 
of  the  ruling  classes  to  limit  culture  and  knowledge  to 
their  own  strata.  Therefore  new  ideas  are  at  first  up- 
held only  by  a  small  minority,  and  this  small  group  is 
subjected  to  ridicule,  slander  and  persecution.  But  if 
the  new  ideas  are  good  and  rational,  if  they  have  sprung 
up  as  a  natural  consequence  of  existing  conditions,  they 
will  be  disseminated,  and  the  minority  will  eventually 
become  the  majority.  It  was  thus  with  every  new  idea 
in  the  course  of  human  history,  and  the  idea  of  obtaining 


234          Tne  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

woman's  true  and  complete  emancipation  will  meet  with 
the  same  success.  Were  not  the  believers  in  Christian 
faith  at  one  time  a  small  minority?  Was  the  reformation 
not  ushered  in  by  a  small  and  persecuted  group?  Did 
not  the  modern  bourgeoisie  contend  with  overwhelm- 
ingly powerful  opponents?  Nevertheless  they  were 
victorious.  Or  was  Socialism  destroyed  in  Germany 
by  twelve  j^ears  of  persecution  by  exceptional  laws? 
The  victory  of  Socialism  was  never  more  certain  than 
when  it  was  thought  to  be  destroyed. 

The  assertion  that  housekeeping  and  child-rearing  is 
woman's  natural  sphere  is  as  intelligent  as  the  assertion 
that  there  must  always  be  kings,  because  there  have  been 
kings  as  long  as  there  has  been  a  history.  We  do  not 
know  how  the  first  king  originated,  just  as  we  do  not 
know  where  the  first  capitalist  appeared.  But  we  do 
know  that  monarchy  has  been  greatly  transformed  in  the 
course  of  thousands  of  years,  that  it  is  the  tendency  of 
evolution  to  diminish  the  power  of  kings  more  and  more 
and  that  the  time  will  come — and  that  time  is  not  far  dis- 
tant— when  kings  will  be  quite  superfluous.  Just  as  mon- 
archy, so  every  institution  of  state  and  society  is  subject- 
ed to  changes  and  transformations  and  ultimate  destruc- 
tion. In  the  historical  expositions  of  this  book  we  have 
seen, that  the  present  form  of  marriage  and  the  position  of 
woman  have  by  no  means  always  been  what  they  are  to- 
day. We  have  seen  that  both  are  the  product  of  an  histo- 
rical line  of  development  that  is  still  in  progress.  About 
2>35°  years  ago  Demosthenes  could  assert  that  woman 
had  no  other  vocation  but  to  give  birth  to  legitimate 
children  and  to  faithfully  guard  the  house.  To-day  this 
conception  has  been  overcome.  No  one  could  dare  to 
defend  this  standpoint  to-day  without  being  accused  of 
contempt  of  women.  Indeed  there  are  some  even  to-day 
who  secretly  share  the  view  of  the  ancient  Athenian,  but 
no  one  would  dare  to  express  publicly  what  one  of  the 
foremost  men  of  ancient  Greece  asserted  freely  and 
openly  as  a  matter  of  course.  Herein  lies  the  progress. 

Now,  although  modern  development  has  undermined 
millions  of  marriages,  it  has  on  the  other  hand  influenced 
the  evolution  of  marriage  favorably.  Only  a  few  decades 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  235 

ago  it  was  a  matter  of  fact  in  every  citizen's  and  peasant's 
home,  that  women  not  only  sewed,  knitted,  washed, 
cooked,  etc.,  but  that  they  also  baked  the  bread,  spun 
and  weaved,  and  bleached,  brewed  beer  and  manufac- 
tured tallow  candles  and  soap.  Running  water,  lighting 
and  heating  by  gas — not  to  speak  of  electricity — besides 
numerous  other  modern  housefurnishings  were  unknown 
in  those  days.  Antiquated  conditions  persist  even  to- 
day, but  they  are  exceptions.  The  majority  of  women 
are  relieved  from  many  occupations  that  were  inevitable 
formerly,  because  many  things  can  be  made  better  and 
cheaper  industrially  than  by  the  individual  housewife. 
Thus,  within  a  few  decades  a  great  revolution  has  taken 
place  in  our  domestic  life  to  which  we  pay  so  little  heed, 
only  because  we  take  it  for  granted.  People  do  not  notice 
transformations  even  when  they  take  place  under  their 
very  eyes  as  long  as  they  are  not  sudden  and  disturb  the 
accustomed  order,  but  they  resent  new  ideas  that 
threaten  to  interfere  with  their  treading  of  the  beaten 
path.  This  revolution  in  our  domestic  life  that  is  still 
going  on,  has  considerably  changed  the  position  of 
woman  in  the  family  in  still  another  respect.  Our  grand- 
mother could  not  and  would  not  think  of  visiting  thea- 
tres, concerts  and  places  of  amusement  even  on  week 
days.  Nor  would  any  woman  in  the  good  old  days  have 
dared  to  bother  about  public  affairs  as  so  many  do  to- 
day. At  present  women  organize  and  join  clubs  pursuing 
the  most  varied,  aims,  they  found  newspapers,  subscribe 
to  them  and  edit  them  and  hold  conventions.  As  work- 
ing women  they  organize  industrially  and  attend  the 
men's  meetings.  In  some  localities  of  Germany  they 
even  possessed  the  right  to  elect  members  to  courts  of 
trade,  but  of  this  right  the  reactionary  majority  in  the 
diet  deprived  them  again  in  the  year  of  the  Lord,  1890. 
Although  these  altered  conditions  have  their  dark  sides 
too,  the  bright  sides  predominate,  and  not  even  any  re- 
actionary would  wish  to  abolish  them  again.  The  women 
themselves,  regardless  of  the  conservative  character  of 
most  of  them,  have  no  inclination  either  to  return  to  the 
old,  patriarchal  conditions. 

In  the  United  States,  society  is  organized  along  bour- 


236          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

geois  lines  also,  but  it  is  not  burdened  with  old  European 
prejudices  and  antiquated  institutions,  and  is  therefore 
much  more  inclined  to  adopt  new  institutions  and  ideas 
if  they  hold  promise  of  advantage.  There,  since  quite 
some  time,  the  position  of  woman  is  regarded  differently 
than  in  Europe.  Among  wealthy  circles  women  have 
been  relieved  not  only  of  baking  and  brewing,  but  of 
cooking  as  well,  and  the  one  kitchen  of  an  apartment 
hotel  replaces  many  individual  kitchens.  Our  army  offi- 
cers, who  are  no  Socialists  or  Communists,  have  a  similar 
method.  In  their  casinos  they  form  a  sort  of  house- 
keeping community,  appoint  a  manager,  whose  business 
it  is  to  purchase  the  food  wholesale,  and  to  draw  up  the 
menus,  and  the  food  is  cooked  by  steam  in  the  kitchen 
of  the  barracks.  They  live  far  more  cheaply  than  they 
could  in  a  hotel,  and  their  food  is  at  least  as  good.  Thou- 
sands of  wealthy  families  live  in  boarding  houses  or  ho- 
tels all  year  or  part  of  the  year  without  missing  their 
domestic  cooking.  They,  on  the  contrary,  regard  it  as 
a  great  comfort  to  be  relieved  of  the  private  kitchen.  The 
general  aversion  of  rich  and  wealthy  women  against 
kitchen  work  does  not  seem  to  signify  that  this  occupa- 
tion is  a  part  of  woman's  "natural  sphere."  Indeed,  the 
fact  that  rich  families  and  large  hotels  employ  male  cooks 
makes  it  appear  as  if  cooking  were  man's  work.  Let 
these  facts  be  noted  by  men  who  cannot  conceive 
woman  except  surrounded  by  pots  and  pans. 

Nothing  could  be  simpler  than  to  combine  a  central 
laundry  with  a  central  kitchen — as  has  already  been 
done  in  all  large  cities  by  wealthy  private  residents  or 
speculators — and  to  make  the  institution  general.  With 
the  central  kitchen,  central  heating,  hot  water  supply, 
etc.,  might  be  connected,  and  much  troublesome  work 
entailing  a  great  waste  of  time  and  effort  would  be 
abolished.  Large  hotels,  many  private  houses,  hospitals, 
schools,  barracks  and  other  public  buildings  have  these 
and  other  modern  improvements,  as  electric  light,  bath- 
ing establishments,  etc.  The  mistake  is  that  only  public 
institutions  and  wealthy  persons  profit  by  these  improve- 
ments. If  made  accessible  to  all,  they  would  save  a 
tremendous  amount  of  time,  effort,  labor  and  expense, 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  237 

and  would  considerably  heighten  the  general  well  being. 
In  the  summer  of  1890  German  newspapers  published 
reports  of  progress  being  made  in  the  United  States  in 
regard  to  central  heating  and  ventilation.  In  these  re- 
ports, among  other  things,  the  following  was  stated: 
''Experiments  that  have  recently  been  made,  especially 
in  North  America,  to  heat  entire  blocks  or  portions  of  a 
city  from  one  centrally  located  place,  have  been  success- 
ful in  no  small  degree.  The  construction  has  been  so 
carefully  planned  and  so  practically  applied,  that  the  fa- 
vorable results  and  financial  advantages  will  undoubtedly 
lead  to  an  extension  of  this  system.  Recently  further  ex- 
periments have  been  made  to  provide  not  only  the  heating 
but  also  the  ventilation  of  entire  districts  from  centrally 
located  places." 

Many  of  these  contemplated  improvements  have  since 
been  realized  and  further  improved.  Narrow-minded 
philistines  shrug  their  shoulders  when  such  and  similar 
plans  are  discussed ;  and  yet  in  Germany,  too,  we  are  in 
the  midst  of  a  new  industrial  revolution,  whereby  the  in- 
dividual kitchen  and  other  housework  will  become  as  su- 
perfluous as  labor  by  manual  tools  became  superfluous  by 
the  introduction  of  modern  machinery.  As  late  as  the  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century,  even  a  Napoleon  could 
deride  as  a  crazy  idea  the  project  of  moving  a  vessel  by 
steam.  People  who  were  considered  intelligent,  regarded 
the  plan  of  building  a  railroad  as  an  absurdity;  they 
claimed  that  no  one  could  live  in  a  vehicle  travelling  at 
such  high  speed.  In  the  same  manner  many  new  ideas 
are  dealt  with  to-day.  If  some  one  had  told  our  women  a 
century  ago  that  they  should  get  their  water  from  a  fau- 
cet in  the  kitchen  instead  of  drawing  it  from  the  well,  he 
would  have  been  accused  of  seeking  to  encourage  laziness 
in  housewives  and  servants. 

But  the  great  technical  revolution  along  all  lines  is  in 
full  swing.  Nothing  can  stay  its  progress.  It  is  the  his- 
torical mission  of  bourgeois  society  that  has  ushered  in 
this  revolution,  to  lead  it  to  its  climax,  and  everywhere 
to  bring  to  light  the  germs  of  transformation,  which  a  so- 
ciety organized  on  a  new  basis  will  merely  need  to  gen- 
eralize and  to  make  the  common  property  of  all. 


238          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

The  development  of  our  social  life  does  not  tend  to  lead 
woman  back  to  the  home  and  hearth,  a  state  that  fanatics 
on  domesticity  desire,  and  for  which  they  clamor  as  the 
Jews  in  the  desert  clamored  for  the  lost  flesh-pots  jf 
Egypt.  It  demands  the  release  of  woman  from  her  nar- 
row sphere  of  domestic  life,  and  her  full  participation  in 
public  life  and  the  missions  of  civilization.  Laveleye  is 
right  when  he  says* :  "With  the  growth  of  what  we  call 
civilization,  the  feelings  of  piety  toward  family  life  de- 
crease and  its  bonds  become  looser  and  have  less  influ- 
ence on  the  actions  of  men.  This  fact  is  so  general  that 
it  may  be  regarded  as  a  law  of  social  development."  Not 
only  has  the  position  of  woman  in  the  family  changed,  but 
also  the  position  of  son  and  daughter  in  their  relation  to 
the  family.  They  have  gradually  obtained  a  degree  of  in- 
dependence that  was  unheard  of  formerly.  This  is  espe- 
cially so  in  the  United  States,  where  young  persons  are 
educated  to  become  self-reliant  and  independent  to  a  far 
greater  extent  than  in  Europe.  The  dark  sides  that  are 
incidental  to  this  form  of  development  also  are  not  neces- 
sarily connected  with  it,  but  are  rooted  in  the  social  con- 
ditions of  our  time.  Bourgeois  society  does  not  produce 
any  new  and  pleasing  phenomena  that  do  not  have  a  dark 
side  as  well.  As  Fourier  already  pointed  out  with  much 
perspicacity,  all  its  progress  is  double-edged.  Like 
Laveleye,  Dr.  Schaeffle  also  recognizes  the  changed  na- 
ture of  the  modern  family  as  a  result  of  social  develop- 
ment. He  says  :**  "Thruout  history  we  find  the  tendency 
of  the  family  to  return  to  its  specific  functions.  The  fam- 
ily abandons  one  provisionally  and  temporarily  main- 
tained function  after  another  and,  inasmuch  as  it  only 
filled  out  the  gaps  in  social  functions,  it  yields  to  the  in- 
dependent institutions  of  law,  order,  power,  divine  ser- 
vice, teaching,  industry,  etc.,  as  soon  as  such  institutions 
are  developed." 


*Original  Property.     Chap.  XX,  Household  Community.     Leipsic, 
1879. 
^Structure  .and  Life  of  the  Body  .Social.  Vol.  J.      Tuebingen,  1878 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  239 

2.  THE  INTELLECTUAL  ABILITIES  OF  WOMEN. 

Women  are  advancing,  tho  at  present  only  a  small  mi- 
nority strives  to  advance,  and  of  these  again  only  a  few 
are  fully  conscious  of  their  aims.  They  not  only  wish  to 
measure  their  strength  with  that  of  men  industrially  and 
commercially,  they  not  only  wish  to  hold  a  more  inde- 
pendent position  in  the  family,  they  also  wish  to  employ 
their  intellectual  abilities  in  higher  positions  and  in  pub- 
lic life.  They  are  met  time  and  again  with  the  argument 
that  they  are  unfit  by  nature  for  intellectual  occupations. 
The  question  of  the  practice  of  learned  professions  only 
concerns  a  small  number  of  women  in  present-day  so- 
ciety, but  it  is  important  as  a  matter  of  principle.  The 
majority  of  men  seriously  believe  that  women  must  re- 
main subjected  to  them  intellectually  also  and  that  they 
have  no  right  to  seek  equality;  therefore  they  are  vehe- 
mently opposed  to  the  intellectual  ambitions  of  women. 
The  same  men  who  do  not  object  to  women  being  em- 
ployed in  difficult  and  dangerous  occupations  that 
threaten  their  womanliness  and  injure  their  maternity, 
would  bar  them  from  professions  that  are  far  less  difficult 
and  dangerous  and  far  better  suited  to  their  physical  abili- 
ties. In  Germany,  the  lively  agitation  for  the  admission 
of  women  to  universities,  has  called  forth  a  great  number 
of  opponents  who  especially  oppose  the  admission  of 
women  to  the  study  of  medicine.  Among  these  are  Poch- 
hammer,  Fehling,  Binder,  Hegar,  and  others.  J.  Beeren- 
bach  seeks  to  prove  that  women  are  not  qualified  for  sci- 
entific study,  by  pointing  out  that  no  genius  had  as  yet 
sprung  up  among  women.  This  argument  is  neither  valid 
nor  convincing.  Geniuses  do  not  drop  from  the  sky ;  they 
must  have  an  opportunity  for  development,  and  such  op- 
portunity women  have  been  lacking,  for  since  thousands 
of  years  they  have  been  oppressed  and  deprived  of  oppor- 
tunity for  intellectual  development,  and  thereby  their 
mental  abilities  have  become  atrophied.  A  considerable 
number  of  distinguished  women  exist  even  to-day,  and  if 
one  denies  the  existence  of  potential  geniuses  among 
them,  that  is  as  far  from  being  true  as  the  belief  that  there 
were  no  more  geniuses  among  men  than  those  that  were 
recognized  as  such.  Every  country  schoolteacher  knows 


240          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

how  many  able  minds  among  his  pupils  are  never  devel- 
oped because  they  lack  opportunity  for  development.  In- 
deed we  all  have  in  our  day  met  persons  in  whom  we 
recognized  rare  ability  and  who,  we  felt,  would  have  be- 
come a  credit  to  the  community,  if  circumstances  had 
been  more  favorable  to  them.  The  number  of  talents  and 
geniuses  among  men  is  far  greater  than  could  be  revealed 
until  now.  The  same  is  true  of  the  abilities  of  women 
that  have  for  thousands  of  years  been  far  more  hampered, 
repressed  and  cramped  than  those  of  men.  We  have  no 
standard  whereby  we  can  measure  the  amount  of  intel- 
lectual strength  and  ability  among  men  and  women,  that 
would  unfold  if  they  could  develop  under  natural  con- 
ditions. 

To-day  it  is  in  human  life  as  in  plant  life.  Millions  of 
precious  seeds  never  achieve  development  because  the 
ground  on  which  they  are  cast  is  unfertile  or  is  already 
occupied,  and  the  young  plant  is  thus  deprived  of  air, 
light  and  nourishment.  The  same  laws  that  apply  to 
nature  apply  to  human  life.  If  a  gardener  or  farmer 
would  claim  that  a  plant  could  not  be  perfected  without 
having  made  an  attempt  to  perfect  it,  his  more  enlight- 
ened neighbors  would  consider  him  a  fool.  They  would 
hold  the  same  opinion  of  him  if  he  would  refuse  to  inter- 
breed one  of  his  female  domestic  animals  with  a  male  of 
more  perfect  breed  to  obtain  more  perfect  stock. 

There  is  no  peasant  to-day  who  is  so  ignorant  not  to 
recognize  the  advantage  of  a  rational  treatment  of  his 
vegetables,  fruit,  and  cattle ;  whether  his  means  allow  the 
application  of  advanced  methods  is  another  question. 
Only  in  regard  to  humanity  even  educated  people  will  not 
admit  what  they  regard  as  an  irrefutable  law  with  the 
rest  of  the  organic  world.  Yet  one  need  not  be  a  scientist 
to  derive  instructive  observations  from  life.  How  is  it 
that  peasant  children  differ  from  city  children  ?  How  is  it 
that  children  of  the  wealthier  classes  are,  as  a  rule,  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  children  of  the  poor  by  facial  and 
bodily  traits  and  by  mental  qualities?  It  is  due  to  the 
difference  in  their  conditions  of  living  and  education. 

The  one-sidedness  of  training  for  a  certain  profession 
leaves  its  particular  imprint  upon  a  person.  As  a  rule  a 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  241 

minister  or  a  school  teacher  can  easily  be  recognized  by 
his  bearing  and  the  expression  of  his  face,  as  also  a  mili- 
tary man.  even  in  plain  clothes.  A  cobbler  is  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  a  tailor,  a  carpenter  from  a  locksmith. 
Twin  brothers  who  greatly  resembled  each  other  in  their 
youth,  will  show  marked  differences  in  a  more  advanced 
age  if  their  occupations  have  been  very  different  from 
one  another ;  if,  for  instance,  one  is  a  manual  laborer,  say 
a  blacksmith,  and  the  other  has  studied  philosophy. 
Heredity  on  the  one  hand  and  adaptation  on  the  other3 
are  decisive  factors  in  human  development  as  well  as  in 
the  animal  kingdom,  and  man,  moreover,  is  the  most 
adaptive  of  all  creatures.  Sometimes  a  few  years  of  a  dif- 
ferent mode  of  life  and  a  different  occupation  suffice  to 
alter  a  person  completely.  External  changes  are  never 
more  clearly  seen  than  when  a  person  is  transplanted 
from  poor  and  narrow  circumstances  to  greatly  im- 
proved ones.  His  past  can  perhaps  be  disavowed  least  in 
his  mental  culture.  When  people  have  attained  a  certain 
age,  they  frequently  have  no  ambition  for  intellectual  im- 
provement, and  often  they  do  not  need  it  either.  A  par- 
venu rarely  suffers  from  this  shortcoming.  In  our  day 
money  is  the  chief  asset,  and  people  bow  far  more  readily 
before  the  man  with  a  great  fortune  than  before  the  man 
of  knowledge  and  great  intellectual  abilities,  especially  if 
it  is  his  ill  fortune  to  be  poor.  The  worship  of  Mammon 
was  never  greater  than  in  our  day.  Yet  we  are  living  in 
the  "best  of  worlds." 

Our  industrial  districts  furnish  a  striking  example  of 
the  influence  of  decidedly  different  conditions  of  life  and 
education.  Even  externally,  workers  and  capitalists  dif- 
fer to  such  an  extent  as  if  they  were  members  of  two  dif- 
ferent races.  These  differences  were  brought  home  to  us 
in  an  almost  startling  manner  at  the  occasion  of  a  cam- 
paign meeting  during  the  winter  of  1877  in  an  industrial 
town  of  Saxony.  The  meeting,  in  which  a  discussion 
with  a  liberal  professor  was  to  take  place,  had  been  so  ar- 
ranged that  an  equal  number  of  both  parties  were  pres- 
ent. The  front  of  the  hall  was  occupied  by  our  opponents, 
almost  without  exception  healthy,  strong,  and  some 
stately  figures.  In  the  rear  of  the  hall  and  on  the  galler- 


242          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

ies  were  the  workingmen  and  small  traders,  nine-tenths 
of  them  weavers,  mostly  small,  narow-chested,  hollow- 
cheeked  figures  whose  faces  bore  the  imprints  of  care  and 
need.  The  one  group  represented  the  well-fed  virtue  and 
morality  of  the  bourgeois  world,  the  other  represented 
the  worker — bees  and  beasts  of  burden  on  whose  labor 
the  gentlemen  waxed  strong.  If  one  generation  were 
reared  under  equally  favorable  conditions  of  life  the  dif- 
ferences would  be  greatly  decreased  and  would  quite  dis- 
appear among  their  progeny. 

It  is  usually  more  difficult  to  determine  the  social  posi- 
tion among  women  than  among  men.  They  easily  accus- 
tom themselves  to  altered  conditions  and  readily  adopt 
more  refined  habits  of  life.  Their  adaptability  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  more  clumsy  man. 

What  good  soil,  air  and  light  are  to  the  plant,  that  to 
man  are  healthful  social  conditions,  which  enable  him  to 
develop  his  physical  and  mental  qualities.  The  saying 
that  "man  is  what  he  eats"  expresses  a  similar  thought 
somewhat  too  narrowly.  Not  only  what  a  man  eats,  but 
his  entire  standard  of  life  and  his  social  environment  ad- 
vance or  hamper  his  physical  and  mental  development, 
and  influence  his  feelings,  his  thoughts  and  his  actions 
favorably  or  unfavorably,  as  the  case  may  be.  We  see 
every  day  that  persons  living  in  good  financial  circum- 
stances go  to  ruin  mentally  and  morally,  because  outside 
of  the  narrow  sphere  of  their  domestic  and  personal  rela- 
tions, unfavorable  influences,  social  in  character,  were 
brought  to  bear  upon  them  and  gained  such  control  over 
them  that  they  were  driven  into  evil  ways.  The  social 
conditions  under  which  we  live  are  even  more  important 
than  the  conditions  of  family  life.  But  when  the  social 
conditions  of  development  will  be  the  same  for  both 
sexes,  when  there  will  be  no  restriction  for  either,  and 
when  the  general  state  of  society  will  be  a  healthful  one, 
woman  will  rise  to  a  height  of  perfection  that  we  can 
hardly  conceive  to-day,  because  until  now  no  such  con- 
ditions have  existed  in  human  evolution.  The  achieve- 
ments of  individual  women  justify  our  highest  expecta- 
tions, for  these  tower  above  the  mass  of  their  sex  just  as 
male  geniuses  tower  above  the  mass  of  men.  If  we  apply 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  243 

the  standard  of  rulership,  for  instance,  we  find  that 
women  have  shown  even  greater  talent  for  ruling  than 
men.  To  mention  just  a  few  examples :  There  were  Isa- 
bella and  Blanche  of  Castilia,  Elizabeth  of  Hungary, 
Katherine  Sforza,  Countess  of  Milan  and  Imola,  (Eliza- 
beth of  England,  Katherine  of  Russia,  Maria  Theresa,  and 
others.  Basing  his  assertion  on  the  fact  that  women  have 
ruled  well  among  all  nations  and  in  all  parts  of  the  globe, 
even  over  the  wildest  and  most  turbulent  hordes,  Bur- 
bach  is  led  to  remark  that  according  to  all  probability 
women  would  be  better  qualified  for  politics  than  men*. 
When  in  1901  Queen  Victoria  of  England  died,  a  large 
English  newspaper  made  the  suggestion  to  introduce  fe- 
male succession  exclusively  in  England,  because  the  his- 
tory of  England  showed  that  its  queens  ruled  better  than 
its  kings. 

Many  a  great  man  of  history  would  shrivel  considera- 
bly if  we  always  knew  how  much  was  due  to  his  own  ef- 
forts and  how  much  he  owed  to  others.  As  one  of  the 
greatest  geniuses  of  the  French  Revolution,  German  his- 
torians regard  Count  Mirabeau.  Yet  research  has  re- 
vealed the  fact,  that  he  owed  the  preparation  of  almost  ail 
his  speeches  to  the  willing  assistance  of  a  few  learned 
men  who  worked  for  him  secretly  and  whose  labor  he 
skillfully  made  use  of.  On  the  other  hand,  women  like 
Sappho,  Diotima,  at  the  time  of  Socrates,  Hypatia  of 
Alexandria,  Madame  Roland,  Mary  Wollstonecraft, 
Olympe  de  Gouges,  Madame  de  Stael,  George  Sand,  and 
others,  merit  our  highest  admiration.  Many  a  male  star 
pales  beside  them.  The  influence  of  women  as  mothers 
of  great  men  is  also  well  known..  Women  have  accom- 
plished as  much  as  they  could  accomplish  under  exceed- 
ingly unfavorable  circumstances,  and  that  entitles  us  to 
great  expectations  for  the  future.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
women  were  admitted  to  competition  with  men  in  various 
realms  of  activity  only  during  the  second  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth  century.  The  results  obtained  are  very  satisfac- 
tory. 

But  even  should  we  take  for  granted  that  women,  as  a 

*£>.r.  Havelock  Ellis.— Man  and  Wom<m, 


244          Tne  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

rule,  are  not  as  capable  of  development  as  men,  that  there 
are  no  geniuses  and  philosophers  among  them,  we  are 
nevertheless  led  to  ask  whether  this  factor  was  consid- 
ered among  men  when  they,  according  to  the  wording  of 
the  laws,  were  given  complete  equality  with  the  geniuses 
and  philosophers.  The  learned  men  who  deny  the  intel- 
lectual ability  of  women,  are  inclined  to  do  the  same  in 
the  case  of  workingmen.  When  persons  of  nobility  pride 
themselves  on  their  "blue"  blood  and  their  pedigree,  they 
smile  and  contemptuously  shrug  their  shoulders;  but  in 
the  presence  of  the  man  of  lowly  birth  they  consider 
themselves  an  aristocracy  that  have  achieved  their  fa- 
vored position,  not  through  their  more  advantageous  cir- 
cumstances, but  only  by  their  own  peculiar  talents.  Thp 
same  men,  who  are  unprejudiced  in  one  respect  and 
have  a  poor  opinion  of  persons  who  are  not  as  liberal- 
minded  as  they,  become  incredibly  narrow-minded  and 
fanatical  when  their  class  interests  or  personal  conceit  are 
involved.  Men  of  the  upper  classes  judge  men  of  the 
lower  classes  unfavorably,  and  in  the  same  way  almost 
all  men  judge  women  unfavorably.  The  majority  of  men 
regard  women  only  as  a  means  to  their  comfort  and  en- 
joyment. To  regard  them  as  beings  endowed  with  equal 
rights  is  repugnant  to  their  prejudiced  minds.  Woman 
should  be  modest  and  submissive;  she  should  confine 
her  interests  to  the  home,  and  leave  all  other  domains  to 
the  "lords  of  creation."  Woman  should  check  every 
thought  and  inclination,  and  wait  patiently  for  what  her 
earthly  providence,  father  or  husband,  may  decide.  If 
she  lives  up  to  this  standard  she  is  praised  for  her  good 
sense,  modesty  and  virtue,  even  tho  she  may  break  down 
under  the  burden  of  physical  and  moral  suffering.  But 
if  we  speak  of  the  equality  of  all  human  beings,  it  is  pre- 
posterous to  wish  to  exclude  half  of  humanity. 

Woman  has  the  same  right  as  man  to  develop  her  abili- 
ties and  to  employ  them  freely.  She  is  a  human  being  as 
well  as  man  and  should  have  the  freedom  of  disposing  of 
her  own  body  and  mind  and  be  her  own  master.  The 
chance  of  having  been  born  a  woman,  must  not  affect  her 
human  rights.  To  exclude  woman  from  equal  rights  be- 
cause she  has  been  born  a  woman  and  not  a  man — a  fact 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  245 

of  which  both  man  and  woman  are  innocent — is  as  un- 
fair, as  to  make  rights  and  privileges  depend  upon  re- 
ligious or  political  opinion ;  and  it  is  as  irrational  as  the 
belief  that  two  persons  are  innate  enemies  because,  by  the 
chance  of  birth,  they  belong  to  different  races  or  nation- 
alities. Such  views  are  unworthy  of  a  free  human  being. 
Progress  of  humanity  consists  in  removing  whatever 
keeps  one  human  being,  one  class  or  one  sex  in  slavery 
and  dependence  upon  another.  No  difference  is  justified 
except  those  differences  established  by  nature  to  fulfill 
its  purpose.  But  no  sex  will  overstep  the  natural  limits, 
because  it  would  thereby  destroy  its  own  purpose  in 
nature. 


3.     DIFFERENCES  IN  PHYSICAL  AND  MENTAL 
QUALITIES    OF    MAN    AND    WOMAN. 

One  of  the  chief  arguments  of  the  opponents  of  equal 
rights  is,  that  woman  has  a  smaller  brain  than  man  and  is 
less  developed  in  other  respects,  and  that  therefore  her 
lasting  inferiority  is  proven.  It  is  certain  that  man  and 
woman  are  two  human  beings  of  different  sex,  that  each 
has  different  organs  adapted  to  the  sexual  purpose,  and 
that,  owing  to  the  fulfillment  of  the  sexual  function,  a 
number  of  differences  in  their  physiological  and  psycho- 
logical conditions  exist.  These  are  facts  that  no  one  can 
nor  will  deny ;  but  they  do  not  furnish  any  cause  for  so- 
cial or  political  inequality  between  man  and  woman.  Hu- 
manity and  society  consist  of  both  sexes ;  both  are  indis- 
pensable to  their  maintenance  and  development.  Even  the 
greatest  man  was  born  by  a  mother  to  whom  he  may  owe 
his  best  qualities  and  abilities.  By  what  right,  then,  can 
woman  be  denied  equality  with  man  ? 

According  to  the  opinion  of  eminent  authorities,  the 
most  marked  differences  in  physical  and  mental  qualities 
between  man  and  woman  are  the  following:  In  regard  to 
stature,  Havelock  Ellis  considers  170  centimeters  the 
average  height  for  men  and  160  centimeters  for  women. 
According  to  Vierordt,  it  is  172  and  160,  and  in  northern 
Germany,  according  to  Krause,  173  and  163  centimeters. 


246          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

The  proportion  of  man's  stature  to  woman's  is  as  100  to 
93.  The  average  weight  of  adult  persons  is  65  kilograms 
for  men  and  54  for  women.  The  greater  length  of  the 
trunk  in  a  woman's  body  is  a  well-known  difference ;  yet 
this  difference  is  not  as  great  as  has  been  generally  as- 
sumed, as  careful  measurements  have  shown.  The  legs  of 
a  woman  of  medium  size  are  only  by  15  millimeters 
shorter  than  those  of  a  man  of  medium  size,  and  Pfitzner 
doubts  that  this  difference  is  noticeable.  "The  differ- 
ences in  the  lengths  of  body  and  legs  are  influenced  by 
the  stature,  and  are  independent  of  sex."  But  the  female 
arm  is  decidedly  shorter  than  the  male  arm  (as  100  to 
91.5).  The  male  hand  is  broader  and  larger  than  the  fe- 
male hand,  and  with  men  the  ring-finger  is  usually  longer 
than  the  index,  while  the  opposite  is  the  case  with 
women.  By  this  the  male  hand  becomes  more  ape-like, 
as  the  long  arm  also  is  a  pithecoid  (ape-like)  characteris- 
tic. 

In  regard  to  the  size  of  the  head,  the  proportion  of  the 
absolute  height  of  male  and  female  heads  may  be  set 
down  as  100  to  94.  But  the  relative  sizes  (in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the  body)  are  100  to  100.8.  So  actually 
woman's  head  is  somewhat  smaller,  but  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  her  body,  it  is  somewhat  larger  than  man's. 
The  bones  of  woman  are  smaller,  finer,  and  more  delicate 
in  form  and  have  a  smoother  surface,  for  the  weaker 
muscles  require  less  rough  surface  to  fasten  upon.  The 
weaker  muscular  development  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
characteristics  of  woman.  Each  separate  muscle  of  a 
woman's  body  is  finer,  softer,  and  contains  more  water. 
(According  to  v.  Bibra  the  quantity  of  water  contained 
in  the  muscles  is  72.5  per  cent,  with  man,  and  74.4  per 
cent,  with  woman.)  In  regard  to  the  adipose  membrane 
the  opposite  proportion  exists;  it  is  much  more  amply 
developed  with  woman  than  with  man.  The  chest  is  rela- 
tively shorter  and  narrower.  Other  differences  are  di- 
rectly connected  with  the  sexual  purpose.  The  state- 
ments of  various  authors  in  regard  to  relative  and  abso- 
lute weight  of  the  intestines,  are  very  contradictory.  Ac- 
cording to  Vierordt  the  proportion  of  the  weight  of  the 
heart  to  the  weight  of  the  body  is  as  I  to  215  with  men, 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  247 

and  as  I  to  206  with  women.  According  to  Clendinning 
it  is  as  i  to  158  and  as  i  to  149.  Taken  all  in  all,  we  may 
assume  that  the  female  intestines  are  absolutely  smaller, 
but  relatively,  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  body, 
heavier  than  the  male. 

The  blood  of  women  shows  a  larger  percentage  of 
water,  a  smaller  quantity  of  blood-globules,  and  a  smaller 
quantity  of  hemachrome.  With  woman  the  smaller  size 
of  the  heart,  the  narower  vascular  system,  and  probably 
also  the  larger  percentage  of  water  in  the  blood,  cause  a 
less  intense  assimilation  of  matter  and  an  inferior  nutri- 
tion. This  may  also  account  for  the  weaker  jaws.  "It 
may  thus  be  explained  that  even  civilized  man  in  many 
respects  is  more  closely  connected  with  the  animal  world, 
especially  the  ape,  than  woman,  that  he  possessses  pithe- 
coid traits  which  may  be  seen  in  the  shape  of  the  skull 
and  the  length  of  the  limbs." 

In  regard  to  the  differences  of  the  skull  of  both  sexes, 
let  it  be  stated  that,  according  to  Bartels,  there  is  no  abso- 
lute indication  whereby  we  could  determine  whether  a 
skull  belonged  to  a  male  or  female  person.  Absolute 
comparison  shows  that  the  skulls  of  men  are  larger  in 
all  dimensions.  Accordingly  the  weight  is  greater,  too, 
and  the  interior  space  is  larger. 

As  a  medium  weight  of  normally  developed  brains  of 
adult  persons,  Grosser  states  1388  grammes  for  the  man 
and  1252  grammes  for  the  woman*  The  great  majority  of 
male  brains  (34  per  cent.)  weigh  between  1250  and  1550 
grammes,  and  the  great  majority  of  female  brains  (91  per 
cent.)  weigh  between  noo  and  1450  grammes.  But  these 
weights  are  not  subject  to  direct  comparison  since  woman 
is  smaller  than  man.  It  is,  accordingly,  necessary  to  de- 
termine the  weight  of  the  brain  in  proportion  to  the  body. 
When  we  compare  the  weight  of  the  brain  with  the 


*The  following  average  weights  of  male  and  female  brains  have 
been  determined  by  the  following  scientists: 

Male  brain.  Female  brain. 

Bischoff    (Bavaria) 1362  1219 

Boyd    (England) 1325  1183 

Marchand  (Hessia) 1399  1248 

Retzius    (Sweden) 1388  1252 


248          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

weight  of  the  body  we  find  that  with  the  man  there  are 
21.6  grammes  of  the  brain  for  every  kilogram  of  the 
weight  of  the  body,  and  with  the  woman  there  are  23.6 
grammes.  This  outweighing  is  explained  by  the  fact  that 
woman's  stature  is  smaller.* 

Different  results  are  obtained  by  a  comparison  of 
equally  large  individuals  of  both  sexes.  According  to 
Marchand  the  weight  of  the  female  brain  is,  without  ex- 
ception, lighter  than  that  of  men  of  the  same  size.  But 
this  method  is  as  incorrect  as  a  comparison  with  the  size 
of  the  body.  It  takes  for  granted  what  remains  to  be 
proven:  a  direct  relation  between  the  size  of  the  body 
and  the  weight  of  the  brain.  Blakeman,  Alice  Lee  and 
Karl  Pearson  have  determined  on  the  basis  of  English 
data  and  measurements,  that  there  is  no  noticeable  rela- 
tive difference  in  the  weight  of  the  brain  between  man 
and  woman ;  that  is,  a  man  of  the  same  age,  stature  and 
skull  measurements  as  the  average  woman,  wonld  not  dif- 
fer from  her  in  regard  to  the  weight  of  his  brain.** 

Even  Marchand  points  out  that  the  smaller  size  of 
woman's  brain  may  be  due  to  the  greater  fineness  of  her 
nerves.  Grosser  says :  "Indeed,  this  has  not  yet  been  de- 
termined by  means  of  the  microscope,  and  would  be  dif- 
ficult to  determine.  But  we  must  point  to  the  analogy 
that  the  eye-ball  and  the  cavity  of  the  ear  are  also  some- 
what smaller  with  woman  than  with  man,  yet  these  or- 
gans are  no  less  fine  and  serviceable.  Another,  perhaps 
the  chief  reason,  for  the  lighter  weight  of  the  woman's 
brain  may  be  found  in  her  weaker  muscular  develop- 
ment.*** 

Inasmuch  as  the  differences  are  rooted  in  the  nature  of 
sex,  they  can,  of  course,  not  be  altered.  But  to  what  ex- 
tent these  differences  in  blood  and  brain  can  be  changed 
by  a  different  mode  of  life  (nourishment,  physical  and 


*Men  of  genius  as  a  rule  are  small  of  stature  with  a  massy  brain. 
These  are  also  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  child,  and  their  general 
facial  expression  as  also  their  temperament  resemble  the  child's." — 
Havelock  Ellis,  Man  and  Woman. 

**J.  Blakeman,  Alice  Lee  &  K.  Pearson —  AStudy  of  the  biometric 
constants  of  English  Brainweights.  Biometrica,  1005. 

***Dr.  Otto  Grosser — The  structure  of  the  female  body  in  "Man 
and  Woman."  Stuttgart,  1907. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  249 

mental  culture,  occupation,  etc.)  cannot  be  definitely  de- 
termined for  the  time  being.  That  modern  woman  dif- 
fers from  man  to  a  greater  extent  than  primitive  woman 
or  the  woman  of  inferior  races,  seems  to  be  established, 
and  when  we  consider  the  social  development  of  woman's 
position  among  civilized  nations  during  the  past  1000  or 
1500  years,  it  seems  only  too  obvious. 

The  following  shows  the  capacity  of  the  female  skull 
according  to  Havelock  Ellis  (assuming  the  capacity  of 
the  male  skull  to  be  1000)  : 

Negro 984  Russian   884 

Hottentot    951  German    838  to  897* 

Hindu 944  Chinese    870 

Eskimo 931  English 860  to  862 

Dutch  913  Parisian,  19  yrs.,.858 

The  conflicting  statements  among  the  Germans  show 
that  the  measurements  have  been  taken  among  greatly 
differing  material,  both  in  regard  to  quality  and  quan^ 
tity,  and  that  therefore  they  are  not  absolutely  reliable. 
But  the  figures  clearly  show  one  thing :  that  Negroes, 
Hottentots  and  Hindu  women  have  a  considerably 
larger  capacity  of  the  skull  than  the  German,  English 
and  Parisian  women ;  and  yet  the  latter  are  far  more  in- 
telligent. 

A  comparison  of  the  brain-weights  of  well-known  de- 
ceased men  shows  similar  contradictions  and  peculiari- 
ties. According  to  Professor  Reclam,  the  brain  of  the 
scientist  Cuvier  weighed  1830  grammes;  that  of  Byron, 
1807;  that  of  the  famous  mathematician  Ganss,  1492;  of 
the  philologist  Hermann,  1358;  of  the  Parisian  prefect 
Hausmann,  1226.  It  is  said  that  the  weight  of  Dante's 
brain  also  was  below  the  average  weight  of  the  male 
brains.  Havelock  Ellis  gives  us  similar  information.  He 
reports  that  the  brain  of  an  unknown  person,  weighed  by 
Bischoff,  had  a  weight  of  2222  grammes,  while  the  brain 
of  the  poet  Turgeniew  weighed  only  2012  grammes;  the 
third  largest  brain  was  that  of  an  imbecile ;  the  brain  of  a 
plain  workingman  that  was  also  examined  by  Bischoff, 


*According  to  five  different  authors :    838,  864,  878,  883,  897.    For 
Prussia  (Kupfer),  918;  for  Bavaria  (Rause),  893. 


250          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

weighed  1325  grammes.  The  heaviest  female  brains 
weighed  between  1742  and  1580  grammes;  two  of  these 
were  taken  from  women  who  had  suffered  from  mental 
derangement.  On  the  congress  of  German  anthropolo- 
gists, which  was  held  in  Dortmund  in  August,  1902,  Pro- 
fessor Waldeyer  stated  that  an  examination  of  the  skull 
of  the  philosopher  Leibnitz,  who  died  in  1716,  had 
shown  that  its  contents  only  measured  1450  cubic  cen- 
timeters, which  corresponds  to  a  brain  weight  of  1300 
grammes.  According  to  Hausemann,  who  examined  the 
brains  of  Mommsen,  Bunsen  and  Adolph  v.,  Menzel, 
Mommsen's  brain  weighed  1429.4  grammes;  it  accord- 
ingly did  not  exceed  the  average  brainweight  of  an  adult 
man.  Menzel's  brain  weighed  only  1298  grammes  and 
Bunsen's  less  still — 1295  grammes,  below  the  average 
male  brainweight  and  not  much  above  the  brainweight  of 
a  woman.  Those  are  striking  facts  that  completely 
overthrow  the  old  assumption  that  intellectual  abilities 
could  be  measured  by  the  capacity  of  the  skull.  After  an 
examination  of  the  English  data,  Raymond  Pearl  conies 
to  the  following  conclusion :  "There  are  no  proofs  of  a 
close  relation  between  intellectual  abilities  and  brain- 
weight."*  The  English  anthropologist,  W.  Duckworth, 
says:  "There  is  no  proof  that  a  heavy  brainweight  is  ac- 
companied by  great  intellectual  ability.  Neither  the 
brainweight,  nor  the  capacity  of  the  skull,  nor  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  head,  where  they  could  be  determined, 
have  been  of  any  use  as  a  measure  of  intellectual  abili- 
ties."** Kohlbruegge,  who  has  during  recent  years  pub- 
lished the  results  of  the  examinations  of  human  brains  of 
many  races,  says:  "Intelligence  and  brainweight  are  en- 
tirely dependent  of  one  another.  Even  the  greater 
brainweight  of  famous  men  is  not  sufficient  proof,  since 
it  exceeds  the  general  medium  weight,  but  not  that  of  the 
upper  classes  to  which  these  men  belonged.  But  by  these 
statements  I  do  not  seek  to  deny  that  brainweight  can 
be  increased,  especially  by  excessive  study  during  youth, 
which  may  account  for  the  heavier  brainweights  and  the 

*Raymond  Pearl— Variation  or  Correlation  in  Brainweight.     Bi- 
ometrika,  vol.  IV.     June,  1905. 
*W.  Duckworth — Morphology  and  Anthropology.  Cambridge,  1904. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  251 

greater  skull  capacity  of  the  upper  classes  and  of  schol- 
arly persons,  especially  when — as  is  usually  the  case 
among  the  well-to-do — excessive  nourishment  is  added. 
This  increase  in  weight  by  mental  over-exertion  has  its 
dark  sides  also,  as  is  well  known.  Lunatics  often  have 
very  heavy  brains.  The  main  point  is  that  it  cannot  be 
proven  that  intelligence  (something  entirely  different 
from  productiveness)  has  any  relation  to  weight.  It  is 
true  of  the  external  formation  also,  that  until  now,  no 
connection  could  be  shown  between  certain  forms  and 
higher  mental  development,  intelligence,  or  genius."* 

It  is  established,  then,  that  we  cannot  draw  conclusions 
from  the  brainweight  as  to  mental  qualities,  as  little  as 
we  can  draw  conclusions  from  the  size  of  the  body  as  to 
physical  strength.  The  large  mammals,  such  as  elephant, 
whale,  etc.,  have  larger  and  heavier  brains;  yet  in  regard 
to  proportional  brainweight  they  are  excelled  by  most 
birds  and  small  mammals.  We  have  some  very  small  ani- 
mals (ant,  bee)  that  are  far  more  intelligent  than  much 
larger  ones  (for  instance,  sheep,  cow),  just  as  people  ot 
large  stature  often  are  mentally  inferior  to  persons  of 
small  and  insignificant  appearance.  According  to  all 
probability  the  mass  of  the  brain  is  not  the  determining 
factor,  but  its  organization  and  the  practice  and  use  of  its 
powers. 

"In  my  opinion,"  says  Professor  L.  Stieda,  "the  differ- 
ence in  psychic  functions  can  doubtlessly  be  accounted 
for  by  the  finer  construction  of  the  gray  matter,  the  nerve 
cells,  the  white  matter,  the  arrangement  of  the  blood-ves- 
sels, the  construction,  form,  size  and  number  of  nerve- 
cells,  and  last  but  not  least,  their  nutrition,  their  metabo- 
lic assimilation."** 

If  the  brain  is  to  attain  the  full  development  of  its  fa- 
culties, it  must  be  exercised  regularly,  and  the  brain 
must  be  properly  nourished,  just  as  every  other  organ; 
if  this  is  left  undone,  or  if  the  training  is  a  faulty  one,  the 

*Kohlbruegge — Investigations  of  the  furrows  of  the  brain  of 
human  races.  Journal  of  Morphology  and  Anthropology.  Stutt- 
gart, 1908. 

**L.  Stieda — The  Brain  of  the  Philologist.  Journal  of  Morphology 
and  Anthropology,  1907. 


252          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

normal  development  will  be  hampered,  even  crippled. 
One  faculty  is  developed  at  the  expense  of  another. 

There  are  some  anthropologists,  as  Manouvrier  and 
others,  who  even  seek  to  prove  that  woman  is  morpho- 
logically ~nore  highly  developed  than  man.  That  is  an 
exaggeration.  Duckworth  says :  "When  we  compare  the 
two  sexes,  we  find  that  there  is  no  constant  difference 
that  lets  one  sex  appear  morphologically  superior  to  the 
other."*  Havelock  Ellis  only  admits  of  one  limitation. 
He  believes  that  female  characteristics  show  fewer  va- 
riations than  the  male.  But,  in  an  anticritique,  Karl 
Pearson  has  explicitly  shown  that  this  is  only  a  pseudo- 
scientific  superstition.** 

No  one  who  is  acquainted  with  the  history  of  the  de- 
velopment of  woman  can  deny,  that  woman  has  been 
sinned  against.  If  Professor  Bischoff  asserts  that  woman 
was  enabled  to  develop  her  brain  and  her  intelligence  as 
well  as  man,  this  assertion  merely  shows  an  incredible 
degree  of  ignorance  upon  the  subject.  The  description 
we  have  given  in  this  book  of  the  position  of  woman 
during  the  course  of  civilization,  makes  it  appear  quite 
natural,  that  thousands  of  years  of  male  rule  have 
brought  about  the  difference  in  the  physical  and  mental 
development  of  the  sexes. 

Our  scientists  ought  to  recognize  that  the  laws  of  their 
sciences  apply  fully  to  man  also.  Heredity  and  adapta- 
tion prevail  with  man  as  with  every  other  living  creature. 
But  if  man  constitutes  no  exception  in  nature,  the  law  of 
evolution  must  apply  to  him  also,  whereby  that  becomes 
clear  what  othrwise  remains  wrapped  in  darkness,  and 
then  becomes  an  object  of  scientific  mysticism  or  mystic 
science. 

The  brain  formation  of  the  sexes  has  developed  in  ac- 
cordance with  their  different  educations.  Indeed  during 
a  great  portion  of  the  past,  the  word  education  could  not 
be  applied  to  woman  at  all.  Physiologists  are  agreed  that 
those  parts  of  the  brain  which  influence  the  intellect  are 


*Duckworth   (as  above). 

**K.  Pearson — Variation  in  Man  and  Woman  in  Chances  of  Death. 
London,  1897. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  253 

situated  in  the  fore-part  of  the  head,  while  those  that 
specially  influence  feeling  and  sentiment,  are  situated  in 
the  middle  part.  The  conception  of  beauty  for  man  and 
woman  has  developed  accordingly.  According  to  the 
Greek  conception,  which  still  prevails,  woman  is  supposed 
to  have  a  low  forehead,  while  man  is  supposed  to  have  a 
high  and  broad  forehead.  This  conception  of  beauty, 
which  is  a  symptom  of  her  degradation,  has  been  so  im- 
pressed upon  our  women,  that  they  consider  a  high  fore- 
head unbeautiful  and  seek  to  improve  upon  nature  by 
combing  their  hair  over  their  forehead  to  make  it  appear 
lower. 

4. — Darwinism  and  the  Condition  of  Society. 

It  has  accordingly  not  been  proven,  that  women  are  in- 
ferior to  men  as  a  result  of  the  quantity  of  their  brain; 
yet  the  present  intellectual  status  of  women  is  not  sur- 
prising. Darwin  is  surely  right  in  saying,  that  if  a  list  of 
the  ablest  men  on  the  subjects  of  poetry,  painting,  sculp- 
ture, music,  science  and  philosophy  were  placed  beside  a 
list  of  the  ablest  women  on  the  same  subjects,  the  two 
could  not  compare  with  one  another.  But  could  it  be 
otherwise?  It  would  be  surprising  if  it  were  not  so. 
Very  correctly  Dr.  Dodel  (Zurich)*  says,  that  it  would 
be  different  if  for  a  number  of  generations  men  and 
women  would  be  similarly  educated.  As  a  rule,  woman 
is  physically  weaker  than  man  also,  which  is  by  no  means 
the  case  among  many  uncivilized  peoples.**  How  much 
can  be  attained  by  practice  and  training  from  childhood 
on,  may,  for  instance,  be  seen  with  ( ladies  of  the  circus 
and  female  acrobats,  who  achieve  most  astounding  things 
in  regard  to  courage,  daring,  skill  and  strength. 

As  all  these  things  are  conditioned  by  the  mode  of  life 
and  education,  as  they  are — to  use  a  scientific  term — due 

*The  Newer  History  of  the  Creation. 

**Proofs  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  previously  quoted  book  by 
Dr.  Havelock  Ellis.  He  relates  that  among  many  savage  and  semi- 
savage  tribes  woman  is  not  only  man's  equal  in  regard  to  size  and 
strenght,  but  even  his  superior.  Ellis  is  agreed  with  others  that  the 
differences  of  brain  between  the  sexes  have  increased  with  the  devel- 
opment of  civilization. 


254          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

to  "breeding,"  it  may  be  assumed  as  certain  that  the 
physical  and  intellectual  life  of  man  will  lead  to  the  best 
results,  as  soon  as  man  will  consciously  and  expediently 
influence  his  development. 

As  plants  and  animals  depend  upon  conditions  of  ex- 
istence, as  they  are  fostered  by  favorable  and  hampered 
by  unfavorable  ones,  and  as  compulsory  conditions  force 
them  to  change  their  nature  and  character — provided 
that  their  influence  does  not  destroy  them — thus  it  is 
also  with  man.  The  manner  in  which  a  human  being  ob- 
tains his  means  of  subsistence  not  only  affects  his  exter- 
nal appearance,  but  also  his  feelings,  his  thoughts  and  his 
actions.  If  unfavorable  conditions  of  existence — that  is, 
unfavorable  social  conditions — are  the  cause  of  insuf- 
ficient individual  development,  then  it  follows  that  by  a 
change  of  his  conditions  of  existence — that  is,  his  social 
condition — man  himself  will  be  changed.  The  point  in 
question,  then,  is,  so  to  organize  social  conditions  that 
every  human  being  will  be  given  an  opportunity  for  the 
untrammelled  development  of  his  nature;  that  the  laws 
of  development  and  adaptation — called  Darwinism  after 
Darwin — may  be  consciously  and  expediently  applied  to 
all  human  beings.  But  that  will  only  be  possible  under 
Socialism.  As  a  rational  being,  capable  of  judgment,  man 
must  so  alter  his  social  conditions  and  everything  in  con- 
nection with  them,  that  equally  favorable  conditions  of 
existence  prevail  for  all.  'Every  individual  shall  be  en- 
abled to  develop  his  talents  and  abilities  to  his  own  ad- 
vantage as  well  as  to  the  advantage  of  society,  but  he 
must  not  have  the  power  to  harm  other  individuals  or  so- 
ciety at  large.  His  own  advantage  and  the  advantage  of 
all  shall  coincide.  Harmony  of  interests  must  supercede 
the  conflict  of  interests  that  dominate  present-day  so- 
ciety. 

Darwinism,  like  every  true  science,  is  an  eminently 
democratic  science.*  If  some  of  its  representatives  claim 
that  the  opposite  is  true,  they  fail  to  recognize  the  range 
of  their  own  science.  Its  opponents,  especially  the 
clergy,  who  are  always  quick  to  perceive  any  advantage 

*"The  hall   of  science  is  the  temple   of  democracy.".     Buckle — 
History  of  Civilization  in  England.    Vol.  II. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  255 

or  disadvantage  to  themselves,  have  recognized  this,  and 
therefore  denounce  Darwinism  as  being  Socialistic  or 
atheistic.  In  this  respect  Professor  Virchow  agrees  with 
his  most  vehement  opponents,  for  at  the  congress  of  Sci- 
entists, held  in  Munich  in  1877,  he  asserted  in  opposition 
to  Professor  Haeckel:  "The  Darwinian  theory  leads  to 
Socialism.*  Virchow  tried  to  discredit  Darwinism  be- 
cause Haeckel  demanded,  that  the  theory  of  evolution 
should  be  introduced  into  the  school  curriculum.  The 
suggestion  to  teach  science  in  the  schools  according  to 
Darwin,  and  the  results  of  modern  scientific  investiga- 
tions, is  vehemently  opposed  by  all  those  who  wish  to 
maintain  the  present  order.  The  revolutionary  effect  of 
these  doctrines  is  well  known ;  therefore  it  is  deemed 
wiser  to  propagate  them  only  among  the  chosen  few. 
But  we  contend  that  if  the  Darwinian  theories  lead  to 
Socialism,  as  Virchow  claims,  that  is  no  argument  against 
these  theories,  but  an  argument  in  favor  of  Socialism. 
Men  of  science  should  not  question  whether  the  conse- 
quences of  a  science  lead  to  one  form  of  the  state  or  an- 
other, whether  one  social  condition  or  another  is  justified 
by  them ;  it  is  their  sole  duty  to  investigate  whether  the 
theories  are  in  accordance  with  truth,  and  if  they  are,  to 
accept  them  with  all  their  consequences.  Whoever  acts 
otherwise,  be  it  for  personal  gain  or  favor  or  to  serve 
class  or  party  interest,  commits  a  despicable  action  and  is 


*Ziegler  denies  that  this  was  the  sense  of  Virchow's  remarks,  but 
his  own  report  of  Virchow's  speech  only  confirms  it.  Virchow  said : 
''Now.  just  picture  how  the  theory  of  evolution  is  conceived  even  to- 
day by  the  brain  of  a  Socialist!  (Laughter)  Yes,  gentlemen,  that  may 
seem  amusing  to  some  of  you,  but  it  is  a  very  serious  matter,  and 
T  only  hope  the  theory  of  evolution  may  not  bring  us  such  horrors 
as  similar  theories  have  brought  about  in  our  neighboring  country. 
If  this  theory  is  consistently  followed  out  it  is  very  hazardous,  and 
you  cannot  have  failed  to  observe  that  Socialism  is  in  sympathy 
with  it.  We  should  make  this  perfectly  clear." — Well,  we  have  done 
what  Virchow  feared,  we  have  drawn  the  conclusions  of  the  Dar- 
winian theories  that  Darwin  himself  and  many  of  his  followers 
either  failed  to  draw  or  drew  incorrectly,  and  Virchow  warned 
against  the  dangers  of  these  doctrines  because  he  perceived  that 
Socialism  would  draw  and  would  have  to  draw  the  conclusions  that 
are  involved  in  them. 


256          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

no  credit  to  science.  The  representatives  of  corporate 
science,  especially  at  our  universities,  can  indeed  only 
rarely  lay  claim  to  independence  of  character.  The  fear 
of  financial  loss,  or  the  fear  of  being  discredited  with  the 
powers  that  be  and  of  being  thereby  deprived  of  title  and 
rank  and  the  opportunity  of  advancement,  causes  most  of 
these  representatives  to  bow  down  and  either  to  conceal 
their  conviction,  or  to  say  publicly  the  opposite  of  what 
they  believe  and  know.  At  a  ceremony  of  homage  to  the 
ruler  held  at  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1870,  Dubois- 
Reymond  exclaimed:  "The  universities  are  institutions 
where  the  intellectual  body-guards  of  the  Hohenzollern 
are  trained."  If  a  Dubois-Reymond  could  express  himself 
in  this  manner,  we  can  imagine  what  conceptions  in  re- 
gard to  the  object  of  science  are  held  by  the  majority  of 
the  others,  who  are  very  inferior  to  this  eminent  scien- 
tist.* Science  is  degraded  to  serve  the  purposes  of  the 
ruling  powers. 

It  is  only  natural  that  Professor  Haeckel  and  his  ad- 
herents, Professor  O.  Schmidt,  v.  Hellwald  and  others, 
remonstrate  energetically  against  the  terrible  accusation 
that  Darwinism  leads  to  Socialism.  They  claim  that  the 
opposite  is  true,  that  Darwinism  is  aristocratic,  since  it 
teaches  that  everywhere  in  nature  the  more  highly  or- 
ganized and  stronger  living  beings  suppress  the  inferior 
ones ;  and  since,  according  to  their  conception,  the  prop- 
ertied and  educated  classes  constitute  these  more  highly 
organized  and  stronger  living  beings  in  human  society, 
they  consider  the  rule  of  these  classes  a  matter  of  course, 
since  it  is  justified  by  the  laws  oi  nature. 

These,  among  our  evolutionists,  are  ignorant  of  the 
economic  laws  which  dominate  bourgeois  society.  Other- 
wise they  would  know  that  the  blind  rule  of  these  laws 
does  not  raise  to  social  pre-eminence  either  the  best  or 
the  ablest  or  the  most  competent,  but  frequently  the 
worst  and  the  most  cunning,  who  thereby  are  placed  in  a 
position  of  making  the  conditions  of  life  and  develop- 
ment most  favorable  to  their  progeny,  without  the  least 

*In  reference  to  former  attacks  upon  him,  Dubois  Reymond  re- 
peated the  sentence  quoted  above  in  February,  1883,  during  the  com- 
memoration of  the  birthday  of  Frederick  the  Great. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  257 

effort  on  their  part.  Under  no  economic  system  did  per- 
sons, possessing  good  and  noble  human  qualities,  have 
so  little  opportunity  of  attaining  and  maintaining  an  ele- 
vated position,  as  under  the  capitalistic  system.  With- 
out fear  of  exaggeration  it  may  be  said,  that  this  state  of 
affairs  increases  with  the  development  of  this  system. 
Lack  of  consideration  for  others  and  unscrupulousness 
in  the  choice  and  application  of  means  to  attain  one's  end, 
prove  far  more  effective  than  all  human  virtues  combined. 
Only  one  who  is  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  this  society  or 
who  is  so  dominated  by  bourgeois  prejudices  that  he  can- 
not reason  properly  or  draw  correct  conclusions,  could 
regard  a  social  system  based  upon  such  conditions  as  a 
society  of  the  "fittest  and  best."  The  struggle  for  exist- 
ence is  always  present  with  all  organisms.  It  goes  on 
without  any  knowledge  on  their  part  of  the  laws  and 
conditions  that  shape  it.  This  struggle  for  existence  pre- 
vails among  men  also  and  among  the  members  of  each 
social  group  from  which  solidarity  has  disappeared,  or 
where  it  has  not  yet  been  developed.  This  struggle  for 
existence  changes  its  form  according  to  the  various  rela- 
tions of  men  to  one  another  in  the  course  of  human  de- 
velopment. It  assumes  the  character  of  class  struggles 
on  an  ever  higher  scale.  But  these  struggles — and 
thereby  man  is  distinguished  from  all  other  human  be- 
ings— lead  to  a  growing  understanding  of  the  nature  of 
society,  and  finally  to  a  recognition  of  the  laws  which  de- 
termine its  development.  Eventually  man  will  but  need 
to  apply  these  laws  to  his  social  and  political  institu- 
tions and  t.o  transform  them  accordingly.  The  differ- 
ence is  that  man  may  be  called  a  reasoning  animal,  but 
the  animal  is  not  a  reasoning  human  being.  This  many 
Darwinists  fail  to  see,  owing  to  their  biased  conceptions, 
and  therefore  arrive  at  false  conclusions.* 


*Enrico  Ferri  published  a  book  on  "Socialism  and  Modern  Science, 
Darwin — Spencer — Marx,"  in  which  he  proves,  especially  in  answer 
to  Haeckel,  that  Darwinism  and  Socialism  are  in  complete  harmony 
and  that  it  is  a  grave  error  on  Haeckel's  part  to  characterize  Darwin- 
ism as  being  aristocratic.  We  do  not  agree  with  Ferri's  book 
in  every  respect.  We  especially  do  not  share  his  point  of  view  in 
judging  Ihe  qualities  of  women,  which  is,  in  the  main,  the  point  of 
Lombroso  and  Ferrero.  Ellis  has  shown  in  "Man  and  Woman"  that 


258          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

Professor  Haeckel  and  his  adherents  also  deny  that 
Darwinism  leads  to  atheism.  Thus,  after  they  have  done 
away  with  the  "creator"  by  all  their  scientific  arguments 
and  proofs,  they  maks  desperate  efforts  to  re-introduce 
him.  To  attain  this  purpose  a  new  sort  of  individual  "re- 
ligion" is  formed,  that  has  been  termed  "higher  morality," 
"moral  principles,"  etc.  In  1882  at  the  congress  of  sci- 
entists in  Eisenach,  in  the  presence  of  the  Grand-duke  of 
Weimar  and  his  family,  Professor  Haeckel  endeavored 
not  only  to  save  religion  but  also  to  represent  his  master, 
Darwin,  as  being  a  religious  man.  The  attempt  failed,  as 
anyone  can  affirm  who  read  the  lecture  and  the  letter 
from  Darwin  that  was  quoted  in  it.  Darwin's  letter  ex- 
presses, though  in  careful  terms,  the  opposite  of  what 
Professor  Haeckel  claimed  it  to  express.  Darwin  was 
obliged  to  consider  the  piety  of  his  fellow-countrymen, 
the  English,  therefore  he  never  dared  to  express  publicly 
his  true  views  in  regard  to  religion.  But  he  did  so  pri- 
vately, as  became  known  shortly  after  the  congress  in 
Weimar,  for  he  told  Dr.  L.  Buechner  that  he  had  not  be- 
lieved since  his  fortieth  year — since  1849 — because  he 
had  not  been  able  to  obtain  proofs  to  justify  belief.  Dur- 
ing the  last  years  of  his  life  Darwin  also  supported  an 
atheistic  newspaper,  which  was  published  in  New  York. 

Woman  and  the  Learned  Professions. 

Women  are  justified  in  entering  into  intellectual  com- 
petition with  men,  instead  of  waiting  until  it  pleases  the 
men  to  develop  their  intellectual  faculties  and  to  clear  the 
path  for  them.  The  woman's  movement  is  providing  for 
this.  Already  women  have  removed  many  barriers  and 


an  existing  difference  in  the  qualities  of  man  and  woman  does  not 
imply  the  inferiority  of  one — a  confirmation  of  Kant's  utterance,  that 
only  man  and  woman  together  constitute  the  complete  human 
being.  Nevertheless  Ferri's  book  is  a  welcome  one. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  259 

have  entered  the  intellectual  arena — in  some  countries 
with  marked  success.  The  movement  to  obtain  admis- 
sion to  the  higher  institutions  of  learning-  and  to  the  prac- 
tice of  learned  professions  is,  in  accordance  with  the  na- 
ture of  our  conditions,  limited  to  the  circles  of  bourgeois 
women.  The  proletarian  women  are  not  directly  con- 
cerned since,  for  the  time  being,  these  studies  and  the  re- 
sulting positions  are  closed  to  them.  Nevertheless,  this 
movement  and  its  success  is  an  object  of  general  inter- 
est. In  the  first  place,  it  is  a  matter  of  principle,  since  it 
affects  the  general  position  of  woman;  in  the  second 
place,  it  is  destined  to  show  what  women  can  accom- 
plish even  at  present,  under  conditions  that  are  highly  un- 
favorable to  their  development.  Moreover,  all  women 
are  interested,  for  instance,  in  being  able,  in  case  of  sick- 
ness, to  be  treated  by  physicians  of  their  own  sex,  if  they 
so  choose,  since  many  feel  that  they  can  confide  with  less 
reserve  in  a  woman  than  in  a  man.  To  a  great  many  of 
our  women  female  physicians  are  a  blessing,  for  the  fact 
that  they  must  turn  to  male  physicians  in  the  case  of  dis- 
eases or  ailments  connected  with  their  sex  functions,  fre- 
quently prevents  them  from  seeking  medical  aid  in  time. 
This  leads  to  many  troubles  and  serious  results,  not  only 
to  the  women  themselves,  but  to  their  husbands  also. 
There  is  hardly  a  physician  who  has  not  had  some  expe- 
rience with  this  reticence  of  women,  that  may  sometimes 
be  called  almost  criminal,  and  their  aversion  against  con- 
fessing to  their  ailments.  That  is  readily  understood. 
But  it  is  inconceivable  that  the  men,  and  especially  many 
physicians  also,  will  not  recognize  how  justifiable  it  is, 
therefore — indeed  how  necessary — for  women  to  study 
medicine. 

Female  physicians  are  no  novel  factor.  Among  most 
of  the  ancients,  especially  among  the  ancient  Germans, 
women  practiced  the  art  of  healing.  There  were  female 
physicians  and  surgeons  of  note  during  the  ninth  and 
tenth  centuries  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Arabs,  especially 
in  Spain,  under  the  rule  of  the  Arabs  (Moors),  where 
they  studied  at  the  University  of  Cordova.  The  study 
of  women  at  various  Italian  universities,  as  Bologna  and 
Palermo,  was  also  due  to  Moorish  influence.  When  the 


260          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

''neathen"  influence  ceased  in  Italy,  these  studies  were 
prohibited.  In  1377  the  faculty  of  the  University  of 
Bologna  issued  the  following  decree:  "As  woman  is  the 
source  of  sin,  the  devil's  tool,  the  cause  of  the  expulsion 
from  paradise,  and  the  cause  of  corruption  of  the  old  law, 
and  as  therefore  every  conversation  with  her  should  bfe 
carefully  avoided,  we  distinctly  forbid  and  interdict  any 
one  to  venture  to  introduce  any  woman,  no  matter  how 
respectable  she  may  be,  into  this  college.  Should  some 
one  do  so  nevertheless,  the  rector  shall  punish  him  se- 
verely." 

One  good  result  of  the  study  of  women  is,  that  female 
competition  has  a  very  stimulating  influence  on  the  stu- 
diousness  of  the  male  students,  which  has  left  much  to  be 
wished  for,  as  has  been  affirmed  by  various  sources. 
That  alone  would  be  a  great  gain.  It  would  furthermore 
considerably  improve  their  habits.  The  drunkenness, 
pugnacity,  and  beer-saloon  habit  of  our  students  would 
become  greatly  checked.  Those  places  from  which  our 
statesmen,  judges,  public  attorneys,  police  officials,  minis- 
ters, representatives  of  the  people,  etc.,  are  chiefly  re- 
cruited, would  become  more  worthy  of  the  objects  for 
which  they  were  founded  and  are  being  maintained.  Ac- 
cording to  the  impartial  opinions  of  those  competent  to 
judge,  such  an  improvement  is  exceedingly  needful. 

The  number  of  states  that  admit  women  to  their  high- 
schools  and  universities  are  rapidly  increasing  since  a 
few  decades.  None  that  lays  claim  to  being  a  civilized 
state  can  offer  continued  resistance  to  this  demand.  The 
United  States  took  the  lead  and  Russia  followed,  two 
states  that  are  diametrically  opposed  to  one  another  in 
every  respect.  In  the  North  American  Union  women 
have  been  admitted  to  high-schools  and  universities  in 
.all  the  states;  in  Utah  since  1850;  in  Iowa  since  1860;  in 
Kansas  since  1866;  in  Wisconsin  since  1868;  in  Minnesota 
:since  1869;  in  California  and  Missouri  since  1870,  and  in 
Ohio,  Illinois  and  Nebraska  since  1871.  Since  then  all 
the  other  states  followed.  Quite  in  accordance  with  their 
opportunity  for  study,  the  women  in  the  United  States 
have  achieved  their  positions.  According  to  the  census 
of  1900  there  were :  7399  female  physicians  and  sur- 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  261 

geons,  5989  writers,  1041  architects,  3405  ministers,  1010 
lawyers,  and  327,905  teachers. 

In  Europe,  Switzerland  took  the  lead  in  opening  its  uni- 
versities to  women.  The  following  shows  the  number  of 
male  and  female  students  at  Swiss  universities : 

Enrolled  Total  number  of 

Total  female  women  attend- 

students  ing  courses 

1896-1897  7676  1502  2757 

I900-I90I  8521  IOX)4  3156 

1905-1906 4l8l  391  728 

1906-1907  5301  854  1429 

During  the  term  1906  to  1907  the  female  students  were 
distributed  as  follows  among  the  various  faculties :  law, 
75;  medicine,  1181;  philosophy,  648.  According  to  na- 
tionality there  were  172  Swiss  women,  and  1732  foreign- 
ers. The  number  of  German  wromen  students  in  Switzer- 
land has  decreased,  since  they  are  admitted  to  German 
universities  now,  although  not  without  restrictions.  Dur- 
ing the  term  1906  to  1907  the  number  of  regularly  en- 
rolled female  students  constituted  about  30  per  cent,  of 
all  the  students.  In  England  women  are  admitted  to  lec- 
ture at  the  universities,  but  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
they  are  still  barred  from  taking  degrees.  In  France  in 
1905  there  were  33,168  students,  among  these  1922 
women  (774  foreigners).  They  were  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: Law,  57;  medicine,  386;  sciences,  259;  literature, 
838 ;  miscellaneous,  382.  The  following  are  the  countries 
in  which  women  have  been  admitted  to  universities : 
United  States,  England,  Holland,  Belgium  ,  Denmark, 
Sweden,  Norway,  Russia,  Germany,  Austria,  Hungary, 
Italy,  Switzerland,  France,  Turkey  and  Australia.  Fe- 
male physicians  are  admitted  to  the  practice  of  their  pro- 
fession in  India,  Abysinnia,  Persia,  Morocco,  China,  etc. 
Especially  in  the  Oriental  countries  female  physicians 
are  constantly  gaining  ground.  The  restrictions  that 
custom  and  religion  place  upon  women  in  these  coun- 
tries make  female  physicians  an  especially  great  boon. 

After  long  struggles  and  great  exertions,  Germany, 
too,  has  at  last  taken  a  new  course,  though  timidly  at 
first.  By  a  decision  passed  by  the  Federal  Council  on 


262          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

April  24,  1899,  women  have  been  admitted  to  examina- 
tions for  the  practice  of  medicine  and  dentristry,  as  well 
as  pharmacy,  upon  the  same  terms  as  men.  By  another 
decision  of  the  Federal  Council  of  July  28,  1900,  German 
women  physicians  who  studied  abroad  are  admitted  to 
practice  in  Germany,  and  studies  commenced  abroad 
were  accredited  to  them.  Even  since  1898  some  German 
universities,  as  Heidelberg  and  Goettingen,  had  opened 
their  doors  to  women.  During  the  term  1901  to  1902, 
1270  women  attending  courses  were  already  ennumer- 
ated  in  the  registers  of  the  universities.  In  a  number  of 
German  cities  girls'  high-schools  and  colleges  were 
founded;  thus  in  Karlsruhe,  Stuttgart,  Hannover,  Koe- 
nigsberg,  Hamburg,  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  Breslau, 
Berlin,  Schoeneberg,  Mannheim,  etc.  But  in  the  spring 
of  1902,  the  senate  of  the  University  of  Berlin  again  de- 
clined a  request  by  female  students,  to  be  matriculated 
upon  presentation  of  a  certificate  of  admission  from  a 
German  college.  The  opposition  by  very  influential  cir- 
cles in  Germany  against  the  study  of  women  had  not  yet 
been  overcome.  During  March  of  1902,  the  Prussian  min- 
ister of  public  instruction  delivered  a  speech  in  the  Prus- 
sian diet,  in  which  he  said  among  other  things,  that  they 
girls'  colleges  are  an  experiment  that  must  be  declined 
by  the  ministry  of  public  instruction.  He  feared,  so  he 
said,  that  the  differences  between  man  and  woman  es- 
tablished by  nature  and  developed  by  civilization, 
would  be  impaired  by  the  study  of  girls  at  colleges  and 
universities,  and  that  the  characteristics  of  the  German 
woman  ought  to  be  maintained  for  the  welfare  of  the 
German  family.  That  is  quite  in  keeping  with  the  old 
conception.  Many  German  professors  also  continue  to 
oppose  study  for  women,  though  others  admit  that 
many  of  the  female  students  are  well,  some  even  ex- 
cellently qualified,  to  meet  the  demands  made  upon  them. 
What  some  of  the  students,  perhaps  a  majority  of  them, 
thought  in  regard  to  the  study  of  women,  may  be  seen 
from  the  following  protest  of  the  clinical  students  at 
Halle,  addressed  to  the  medical  students  of  Germany 
generally  during  March  of  1902.  After  it  states  that  the 
protest  has  been  caused  by  the  agitation,  carried  on  by 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  263 

the  "Society  for  Furthering  the  Education  of  Women  in 
Berlin,"  to  admit  women  to  the  study  of  medicine,  it 
goes  on  to  say:  "Since  this  question  has  been  called  to 
public  attention,  the  clinical  students  of  Halle  turn  to 
those  circles  to  whom  the  decision  is  of  prime  impor- 
tance, the  clinical  students  and  physicians-  at  German 
universities.  They  either  know  the  resulting  unpleas- 
antness from  personal  experience,  or  can  picture  to 
what  unwholesome  situations,  devoid  of  all  modesty, 
this  common  clinical  instruction  must  lead,  situations 
that  are  too  revolting  to  be  described.  The  medical 
faculty  of  the  university  of  Halle  was  one  of  the  first  to 
admit  women  to  the  study  of  medicine,  and  the  innova- 
tion may  be  regarded  as  a  complete  failure.  Into  these 
halls  of  earnest  endeavor  cynicism  has  entered  with  the 
women,  and  scenes  frequently  occur  that  are  equally  ob- 
noxious to  instructors,  students  and  patients.  Here  the 
emancipation  of  woman  becomes  a  calamity,  conflicting 
with  morality,  and  should  be  checked.  Colleagues,  who 
would  dare,  in  the  face  of  these  facts,  to  oppose  our  just 
demands?  We  demand  the  exclusion  of  women  from 
clinical  instruction,  because  experience  has  taught  us 
that  a  common  clinical  instruction  of  male  and  female 
students  is  incompatible  with  a  thoroughgoing  study  of 
medicine,  as  well  as  with  the  principles  of  decency  and 
morality.  This  question  taken  up  by  us  is  no  longer  a 
local  one.  Already  it  has  been  stated  in  government 
circles,  that  women  are  to  be  definitely  admitted  to  the 
study  of  medicine.  You  all  now  are  equally  interested 
in  our  cause,  and  therefore  we  appeal  to  you:  Express 
your  opinion  on  this  question  and  join  with  us  in  a  com- 
mon protest!" 

This  protest  is  a  striking  proof  of  the  narrow-minded- 
ness of  the  clinical  students  and  also  of  their  envy,  for 
petty  envy  is  at  the  bottom  of  most  of  their  moral  con- 
siderations. How  can  an  institution  that  has  existed 
for  years  in  other  civilized  countries,  without  injuring 
the  morals  and  the  sense  of  decency  of  male  and  female 
students,  be  considered  a  peril  to  Germany?  The  Ger- 
man students  are  not  famed  for  their  morality  and  ought 


264          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

to  refrain  from  a  moral  outburst  that  seems  like  a  jest.* 
If  it  is  not  incompatible  with  decency  and  morality  for 
female  nurses  to  be  present  and  to  render  assistance  to 
the  physicians  during'  all  kinds  of  operations  upon  male 
and  female  patients,  if  it  is  decent  and  proper  for  dozens 
of  young  men  to  surround,  for  the  purpose  of  study,  the 
bed  of  a  woman  in  the  throes  of  child-birth,  and  to  wit- 
ness operations  upon  female  patients,  then  it  is  ridicu- 
lous to  seek  to  exclude  the  female  students. 

Very  different  from  the  reasons  given  by  the  clinical 
students  of  Halle,  was  an  argument  advanced  against 
the  admission  of  women  to  the  study  of  medicine  by  the 
late  Professor  Bischoff.  The  reason  he  gave  was  the 
brutality  of  the  male  students,  which  he  was  well  quali- 
fied to  judge.  But,  regardless  of  the  narrow-mindedness 
or  envy  of  men,  the  question  has  been  decided  in  favor  of 
the  women.  On  August  18,  1908,  an  edict  was  published, 
decreeing  the  regular  enrollment  of  female  students  at 
the  universities  of  Prussia,  where  until  then  they  had 
been  admitted  to  the  lectures.  The  only  restriction  is, 
that  for  the  purpose  of  immatriculation  German  women 
require  the  consent  of  the  minister  in  one  case,  and  for- 
eigners require  it  in  all  cases.**  The  entire  number  of 
women  students  enrolled  at  German  universities  was, 
during  the  term  of  1908-1909,  1077,  as  against  377  during 
the  summer  of  1908,  and  254  in  1906.  They  were  dis- 
tributed among  the  various  universities  as  follows :  Ber- 
lin, 400;  Bonn,  69;  Breslau,  50;  Erlangen,  n;  Freiburg, 
67 ;  Giessen,  23 ;  Goettingen,  71 ;  Greifswald,  5 ;  Halle,  22 ; 
Heidelberg,  109;  Jena,  13;  Kiel,  2;  Koenigsberg,  17; 
Leipsic,  44;  Marburg,  27;  Munich,  134;  Tuebingen,  6, 
Wuerzburg,  7.  Only  the  universities  of  Strassburg,  Ro- 
stock and  Muenster  had  no  female  students.  The  en- 
tire number  of  women  attending  courses  was  1787  dur- 


*A  statistic  compiled  by  Blaschko  gives  the  following  information 
in  regard  to  the  extension  of  sexual  diseases  among  the  various  oc- 
cupations. First  come  the  secret  prostitutes  with  30  per  cent;  then 
the  students  with  25  per  cent;  merchants  with  16,  and  workingmen 
with  9  per  cent, 

**In  special  cases  women  may  be  excluded  from  certain  lectures 
with  the  consent  of  the  minister  of  education. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  265 

ing  the  summer  of  1908,  and  1767  during  the  term  1908 
to  1909.  They  were  distributed  as  follows:  Berlin,  313; 
Strassburg,  249;  Breslau,  168;  Munich,  131;  Bonn,  120  \ 
Koenigsberg,  116;  Leipsic,  95;  Giessen,  93;  Goettingen, 
73;  Tuebingen,  67;  Halle,  54;  Freiburg,  50,  and  in  all 
others  less  than  50.  Of  the  regularly  enrolled  women 
students  3  studied  theology;  31,  law;  334,  medicine,  and 
709,  philosophy. 

The  admission  of  women  to  the  universities  necessi- 
tated a  thoroughgoing  reform  of  girls'  high-schools.  Ac- 
cording to  the  provisions  of  May  31,  1899,  a  nine  years' 
course  had  been  set  down  as  the  rule  for  girls'  high- 
schools,  while  a  ten  years'  course  was  the  exception.  But 
development  necessitated  the  regular  introduction  of  a 
tenth  class.  According  to  statistics  there  were  in  1901, 
213  public  high-schools  for  girls;  among  these  90  had  a 
nine  years'  course  and  54  a  ten  years'  course.  In  Octo- 
ber, 1907,  the  number  of  schools  having  a  nine  years' 
course  had  decreased  from  90  to  69,  and  the  number  of 
schools  having  a  ten  years'  course  had  increased  from  54 
to  132.  Among  the  private  schools  for  girls,  too,  there 
were,  besides  no  with  a  nine  years'  course,  138 
with  a  ten  years'  course.  It  only  remained  to  add  the 
bureaucratic  seal  to  this  actual  development,  and  to  pre- 
serve as  much  as  possible  of  the  "characteristics  of  Ger- 
man women."  According  to  the  reform  of  August  18,. 
1908,  girls'  high  schools  shall  consist  of  ten  grades.  To- 
"complete  her  education  in  regard  to  the  future  life's 
work  of  a  German  woman,"  it  is  planned  to  found  a 
lyceum  with  a  course  from  one  to  two  years.  In  order 
to  prepare  young  girls  of  the  upper  classes  for  academic 
training,  colleges  are  being  planned,  which  are  to  be  un- 
der the  same  management  as  the  girls'  high-schools. 

Thereby  an  experiment,  which  the  board  of  education 
still  refused  to  consider  in  March  1902,  is  now,  six  years 
later,  under  the  pressure  of  economic  development,  be- 
ing introduced  by  that  same  board  on  a  national  scale. 
Let  us  consider  the  official  argumentation !  It  reads  as 
follows : 

"The  rapid  development  of  our  civilization  and  the  re- 
sulting changes  in  social,  economic  and  educational  con- 


266          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

ditions,  have  brought  about  that,  especially  in  the  middle 
and  upper  classes,  many  girls  remain  unprovided  for,  and 
much  ability  reposing  in  woman,  that  may  be  valuable 
to  the  community,  remains  unapplied.  The  numerical 
superiority  of  the  female  population  and  the  increasing 
bachelorhood  of  men  of  the  upper  classes,  compel  a 
large  percentage  of  educated  girls  to  renounce  their  nat- 
ural profession  of  wifehood  and  motherhood.  It  be- 
comes necessary  to  open  professions  to  them  that  are 
suited  to  their  education,  and  to  give  them  an  opportun- 
ity to  earn  their  living,  not  only  by  teaching,  but  also  by 
other  professions  attainable  by  a  university  education." 
This  almost  reads  like  an  extract  from  my  book ! 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  higher  education  of  women  can 
no  longer  be  halted.  There  are  female  physicians  in  all 
civilized  countries  of  the  world,  and  even  in  some  that 
are  not  yet  regarded  as  civilized.  The  late  Li  Hung 
Chang  had  appointed  as  his  family  physician  a  Chinese 
woman  doctor  who  practiced  at  the  woman's  hospital  of 
her  native  town,  Futchang.  The  late  Sonia  Kowalewska, 
the  noted  mathematician,  was  professor  of  mathematics 
at  the  University  of  Stockholm  from  1889  until  her 
death  in  1891.  There  are  many  women  professors  in 
the  United  States,  and  some  also  in  Italy,  Switzerland, 
England  and  France.  In  France  the  famous  Marie 
Curie,  who  together  with  her  husband  discovered  radium 
and  polonium,  was,  after  the  death  of  her  husband  in 
1906,  appointed  his  successer  at  the  university.  We  see 
women  acting  as  physicians,  dentists,  lawyers,  chemists, 
physicists,  geologists,  botanists,  teachers  at  higher  insti- 
tutions of  learning,  etc.,  and  it  is  up  to  the  women  them- 
selves to  prove  by  their  achievements,  that  they  are  as 
competent  to  fill  the  positions  entrusted  to  them  as  men. 
In  Switzerland,  during  the  summer  of  1899,  a  majority  of 
voters  in  the  Canton  of  Zurich,  favored  the  admission  of 
women  to  the  practice  of  law.  The  decision  was  passed 
by  21,717  against  20,046  votes.  In  the  United  States 
women  are  admitted  to  the  bar  in  34  states.  They  are 
also  admitted  in  France,  Holland,  Sweden,  Denmark, 
Finland,  Russia,  Canada  and  Australia. 

Many  men,  especially  learned  men,  are  opposed  to  the 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  267 

higher  education  of  women,  because  they  believe  that  the 
sciences  will  become  degraded  if  even  women  can  prac- 
tice them.  They  regard  scientific  study  as  a  privilege  re- 
served for  the  chosen  few  of  the  male  sex. 

Unfortunately  our  universities,  as  our  entire  educa- 
tional system,  still  leave  much  to  be  wished  for.  As  the 
children  in  the  public  schools  are  frequently  robbed  of 
the  most  valuable  time  to  cram  their  brains  with  a  lot  of 
things  that  are  not  in  conformity  with  reason  and  scien- 
tific knowledge,  as  they  are  burdened  with  a  lot  of  learn- 
ing that  will  prove  useless  in  life  and  will  rather  hamper 
than  help  their  development,  thus  it  is  also  with  our 
higher  institutions  of  learning.  In  the  preparatory 
schools  the  pupils  are  crammed  with  a  lot  of  useless 
stuff,  mostly  learned  by  rote,  that  absorbs  most  of  their 
time  and  strength,  and  in  the  universities  the  same 
method  is  generally  pursued.  Besides  good  and  useful 
things,  many  that  are  antiquated  and  superfluous  con- 
tinue to  be  taught.  Most  professors  repeat  the  same  lee- 
tures  term  after  term  even  down  to  the  interspersed 
jokes.  To  many  the  noble  profession  of  teaching  be- 
comes a  mere  trade,  and  it  does  not  require  much  intelli- 
gence on  the  part  of  the  students  to  perceive  this.  The 
prevailing  conceptions  concerning  college  life  also  pre- 
vent the  young  people  from  taking  their  studies  too 
seriously,  and  some  who  would  like  to  take  them  seri- 
ously are  repulsed  by  the  pedantic  and  uninteresting 
methods  of  many  professors.  It  is  generally  admitted 
that  students  at  high-schools  and  universities  are  becom- 
ing less  studious,  a  fact  that  has  caused  some  alarm 
among  the  authorities.  Alongside  'of  this  we  find  toady- 
ism and  patronage  playing  an  important  part  at  our  in- 
stitutions of  learning  in  this  age,  which  is  marked  by  a 
lack  of  character.  To  be  of  good  family  and  to  have 
"sound  principles,"  is  regarded  as  being  of  greater  im- 
portance than  knowledge  and  ability.  A  patriot — that 
is,  one  who  has  no  convictions  of  his  own,  but  takes  his 
cue  from  his  superiors  and  fawns  upon  them — is  consid- 
ered more  than  a  man  of  character,  wisdom  and  ability. 
When  examinations  come  around,  men  of  this  type  cram 
for  a  few  months  what  is  needful  to  attain  the  passing 


268          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

mark,  and  when  the  examinations  have  been  passed  suc- 
cessfully, and  they  have  attained  an  official  or  profes- 
sional position,  many  of  these  "scholars"  merely  continue 
to  work  in  a  mechanical  way.  Yet  they  are  very  insulted 
if  a  man,  who  is  not  a  "scholar",  does  not  treat  them  with 
utmost  respect  and  fails  to  regard  them  as  a  superior 
species  of  human  being.  The  majority  of  our  profes- 
sional men,  lawyers,  judges,  physicians,  professors,  pub- 
lic officials,  artists,  etc.,  are  merely  mechanics  in  their 
line,  and  their  sole  object  is  personal  gain.  Only  the  in- 
dustrious man  discovers  later  on  how  much  superfluous 
knowledge  he  assimilated  and  how  often  he  failed  to 
learn  that  which  he  requires  most,  and  then  begins  to 
learn  anew.  During  the  best  part  of  his  life  he  has  been 
bothered  with  much  that  was  useless  or  harmful ;  he  re- 
quires a  second  part  of  his  life  to  cast  what  is  useless  or 
harmful  aside  and  to  attain  the  heights  of  the  views  of 
his  time,  and  then  only  can  he  become  a  useful  member 
of  society.  Many  do  not  surpass  the  first  stage,  others 
come  to  a  standstill  in  the  second,  and  only  few  have  the 
energy  to  struggle  on  to  the  third. 

But  decorum  demands  that  the  mediaeval  trash  and  su- 
perfluous learning  should  be  maintained,  and  as  women 
have  been  until  now,  and  in  many  cases  still  are,  ex- 
cluded from  the  preparatory  institutions,  this  fact  fur- 
nishes a  convenient  excuse  for  excluding  them  from  the 
lecture  halls  of  the  universities.  In  Leipsic,  during  the 
seventies,  one  of  the  most  noted  professors  of  medicine 
made  the  following  frank  confession  to  a  lady :  "A  clas- 
sical education  is  not  essential  to  an  understanding  of 
medicine,  but  it  must  be  made  a  condition  of  entrance  to 
maintain  the  dignity  of  science." 

Opposition  against  an  obligatory,  classical  education 
as  being  essential  to  the  study  of  medicine,  is  gradually 
manifesting  itself  in  Germany  also.  The  tremendous  ad- 
vance of  the  sciences  and  their  great  importance  to  life 
in  general,  necessitates  a  scientific  training.  But  the 
classical  education,  with  its  special  preference  of  Greek 
and  Latin,  considers  science  unimportant  and  neglects 
it.  It  therefore  frequently  happens  that  young  students 
are  wanting  in  the  most  elementary  scientific  knowl- 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  269 

edge,  that  is  of  decisive  importance  for  a  study  like  medi- 
cine. Even  teachers  themselves  are  beginning  to  oppose 
this  one-sided  method  of  education.  In  other  countries, 
for  instance,  in  Switzerland,  the  study  of  science  has  long 
since  been  held  as  being  of  prime  importance,  and  all 
who  possess  sufficient  preliminary  knowledge  in  the  nat- 
ural sciences  and  mathematics  are  admitted  to  the  study 
of  medicine,  even  without  having  had  a  so-called  classi- 
cal education.  The  same  is  true  of  Russia,  the  United 
States,  and  other  countries. 

In  Russia,  where  suppression  and  persecution  of  the 
Jews  is  considered  one  of  the  maxims  of  government,  an 
imperial  ukase,  in  1907,  prescribed  that  in  the  newly  es- 
tablished school  of  medicine  for  women,  only  5  per  cent, 
of  the  students  might  be  of  other  than  Christian  faith. 
Of  these  only  3  per  cent,  might  be  Jewesses,  and  the  re- 
maining 2  per  cent,  were  to  be  reserved  for  students  of 
Moslem  origin.  This  is  one  of  the  retrogressive  meas- 
ures which  are  daily  occurrences  in  Russia.  The  Rus- 
sian government  certainly  had  no  cause  for  such  pro- 
visions, because  there  is  quite  a  dearth  of  physicians  in 
that  tremendous  realm,  and  because  the  Russian  women 
practitioners,  regardless  of  their  faith  or  origin,  have 
been  noted  for  the  most  unselfish  devotion  in  the  prac- 
tice of  their  profession.  Dr.  Erismann,  who  practiced  in 
Russia  for  many  years,  delivered  a  lecture  at  the  54th 
annual  convention  of  the  Medical  Society  in  Olten,  in 
which  he  said :  Very  favorable  were  the  experiences 
gathered  during  the  first  years  in  regard  to  the  activity 
of  the  female  physicians.  From  the  very  beginning  they 
were  enabled  to  win  the  confidence  of  the  people.  In  the 
noble  competition  with  their  male  colleagues  they  even 
carried  off  the  laurels.  It  was  soon  observed  that  the  fe- 
male physicians,  on  an  average,  treated  more  patients  an- 
nually than  the  male  physicians,  although  the  latter 
proved  very  efficient  and  unselfish,  likewise.  Female 
patients  especially,  in  great  numbers,  sought  aid  with  the 
women  doctors."* 


*The  organization   of  free  clinical  treatment  of  patients   in  the 
large  cities  of  Russia. — German  Quarterly  of  Public  Hygiene, 


270          The  Struggle  of  Women  for  Education 

On  the  other  hand,  female  competition,  so  much 
feared  by  men,  especially  in  regard  to  the  practice  of 
medicine,  has  not  been  in  evidence.  It  seems  that  female 
physicians  obtain  a  circle  of  patients  from  their  own  sex 
who  apply  to  male  physicians  rarely,  or  only  in  cases  of 
extreme  necessity.  It  has,  moreover,  been  observed  that 
a  great  many  women  physicians  abandon  their  profes- 
sion as  soon  as  they  enter  into  marriage.  It  seems  that 
in  present-day  society  the  domestic  duties  of  married 
women  are  so  numerous,  especially  where  there  are  chil- 
dren, that  many  women  find  it  impossible  to  have  two 
professions  simultaneously.  A  physician  must  be  con- 
s' antly  prepared,  by  day  and  by  night,  to  practice  her 
profession,  and  to  many  that  becomes  impossible.* 

After  England,**  the  United  States  and  France  took 
lead  in  employing  women  as  factory  inspectors — an  in- 
novation that  has  become  all  the  more  necessary  be- 
cause, as  has  been  shown,  the  number  of  women  in  in- 
dustry is  rapidly  increasing,  and  the  industries  employ- 
ing women,  chiefly  or  exclusively,  are  increasing  like- 
wise— a  number  of  German  states  have  also  followed 
their  example.  Baden,  Bavaria,  Hessia,  the  Kingdom  of 
Saxony,  Weimar,  Wurtemberg,  and  others  have  added 
women  assistants  to  their  factory  inspectors,  and  some 
of  these  have  already  achieved  much  recognition  by  their 
activity.  In  Prussia  there  are  three  women  factory  in- 
spectors in  Berlin,  and  one  each  in  Duesseldorf,  Breslau 
and  Wiesbaden.  This  proves  again  how  the  progress  of 
Prussia  has  been  retarded  compared  with  other  German 
states.  There  is  not  a  single  woman  assistant  in  dis- 

*What  difficulties  are  entailed  for  women  who  have  a  family  and 
at  the  same  time  wish  to,  or  have  to,  practice  a  trade  or  profession, 
has  been  ably  shown  in  the  book  by  Adele  Gerhard  and  Helen 
Simon:  "Maternity  and  Intellectual  Occupations"  (Berlin,  1901, 
George  Reimer).  It  contains  the  personal  experiences  and  opinions 
of  writers,  artists,  singers,  actresses,  etc.,  and  these  opinions  prove 
that  society  must  be  completely  reorganized  to  give  full  play  to  the 
great  amount  of  female  intelligence  that  exists  and  strives  for  ex- 
pression, since  it  is  in  the  interest  of  society  itself  that  it  should  be 
given  full  play. 

**According  to  the  last  report  for  1908,  England  has  16  female  fac- 
tory inspectors,  Miss  A.  M.  Anderson  and  15  assistants. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day 

tricts  like  Potsdam  (with  32,299  working  women), 
Frankfort  on  the  Oder  (with  31,371),  Liegnitz  (with  31,- 
798),  and  others,  where  their  presence  is  extremely  need- 
ful. Here,  too,  it  has  been  seen  that  working  women 
confide  more  readily  in  members  of  their  own  sex,  and 
that  female  factory  inspectors  have  been  able  to  obtain 
much  information  that  was  denied  to  their  male  col- 
leagues. One  shortcoming  of  this  institution  is  that  the 
assistants  frequently  are  not  given  the  autonomy  that  is 
needful  in  their  position,  and  their  pay  is  not  what  it 
ought  to  be,  either.  The  new  institution  is  being  tried 
out  carefully  and  hesitatingly.* 

In  Germany  the  prejudice  and  aversion  against  em- 
ploying women  in  public  offices  is  particularly  strong, 
because  so  many  retired  military  men  annually  seek  ap- 
pointments to  all  kinds  of  offices  in  the  state  and  munici- 
pal administrations,  that  there  is  hardly  any  room  left 
for  applicants  from  other  circles.  When  women  are  em- 
ployed, nevertheless,  their  salary  is  considerably  lower, 
whereby  they  immediately  appear  as  being  worth  less 
than  men,  and  whereby  they  also  become  a  means  to 
keep  down  wages  and  salaries. 

The  great  variety  of  female  ability  could  be  observed 
especially  well  at  the  World's  Fair  in  Chicago,  in  1893. 
The  splendid  woman's  building  had  been  entirely 
planned  by  female  architects,  and  the  articles  displayed 
that  had  been  designed  and  made  by  women  exclusively, 
were  much  admired  for  their  tasty  and  artistic  execution. 
In  the  realm  of  invention,  too,  women  have  achieved 
much  and  will  achieve  still  more.  An  American  trade- 
journal  published  a  list  of  inventions  by  women ;  among 
them  were:  An  improved  spinning  machine;  a  rotary 
loom,  which  produces  three  times  as  much  as  the  usual 
kind;  a  chain  elevator;  a  connecting-rod  for  a  propeller; 
a  fire-escape ;  an  apparatus  for  weighing  wool,  one  of  the 
most  delicate  machines  that  have  ever  been  invented,  oi 
immeasurable  value  to  the  wool  industry;  a  fire  extin- 

*The  first  woman  factory  inspector  was  appointed  in  Bavaria  in 
1897.  From  then  until  1909  the  number  of  woman  factory  inspectors 
rose  to  26.  Fourteen  states  had  until  then  not  appointed  any. 


272  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

guisher;  a  process  of  employing  petroleum  as  a  fuel  for 
steam-engines  instead  of  wood  or  coal ;  an  improved 
spark-catcher  for  locomotives ;  a  signal  for  grade-cross- 
ings ;  a  system  of  heating  cars  without  fire ;  a  lubricating 
felt  to  diminish  friction  (on  railroads)  ;  a  typewriter ;  a 
signal-rocket  for  the  navy ;  a  deep-sea  telescope ;  a  sys- 
tem for  subduing  the  noise  of  the  elevated  trains;  :i 
smoke-consumer;  a  machine  for  folding  paper  bags,  etc. 
Many  improvements  on  sewing  machines  have  been 
made  by  women ;  for  instance,  an  appliance  for  sewing 
canvas  and  coarse  cloth;  an  apparatus  for  threading  the 
needle  while  the  machine  is  running;  an  improvement  of 
machines  for  sewing  leather,  etc.  The  last-named  inven- 
tion was  made  by  a  woman  who  was  a  harness-maker  in 
New  York.  The  deep-sea  telescope,  invented  by  Mrs. 
Mather  and  improved  by  her  daughter,  is  an  invention  of 
great  importance,  since  it  makes  it  possible  to  examine 
the  keel  of  the  largest  vessel  without  bringing  same  into 
a  dry-dock.  With  the  aid  of  this  telescope  sunken 
wrecks  may  be  examined  from  ship-board,  obstacles  to 
navigation  and  torpedoes  may  be  located,  and  so  forth. 

A  machine  famed  in  America  and  Europe  for  its  com- 
plicated and  ingenious  construction,  is  one  for  the  manu- 
facture of  paper  bags.  Many  men,  among  them  noted 
mechanicians,  had  tried  in  vain  to  construct  a  machine 
of  this  sort.  It  was  invented  by  a  woman,  Miss  Maggie 
Knight.  The  same  lady  has  since  invented  a  machine 
for  the  folding  of  paper  bags,  which  performs  the  laboi 
of  thirty  persons.  She  personally  conducted  the  con- 
struction of  this  machine  in  Amherst,  Massachusetts. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
The  Legal  Status  of  Women. 

i. — The  Struggle  for  Equality  Before  the  Law. 

The  social  dependence  of  a  race,  class,  or  sex,  always 
finds  expression  in  the  laws  and  political  conditions  of 
the  country  in  question.  The  laws  of  a  country  are  the 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  273 

formulated  expression  of  its  ruling  interests.  Women, 
being  the  dependent  and  oppressed  sex,  find  their  legal 
status  mapped  out  to  them  accordingly.  Laws  are  both 
negative  and  positive.  They  are  negative  by  failing  to 
take  notice  of  the  oppressed  in  the  distribution  of 
rights.  They  are  positive  inasmuch  as  they  point  out 
his  dependent  position  and  denote  whatever  exceptions 
there  may  be. 

Our  common  law  is  founded  on  the  Roman  law,  which 
considers  the  human  being  solely  in  his  quality  as  a  prop- 
ertied being.  The  old  German  law,  that  dealt  more  favor- 
ably with  women,  has  maintained  its  influence  only  to 
a  slight  extent.  In  the  French  language,  as  in  the 
English  language,  human  being  and  the  male  are  denoted 
by  the  same  word,  "1'homme'' — man.  In  the  same  way, 
the  French  law  only  recognizes  the  man  as  a  human  be- 
ing, and,  until  a  few  decades  ago,  this  was  true  also  of 
England,  where  women  were  maintained  in  abject  de- 
pendence. It  was  the  same  in  ancient  Rome.  There 
were  Roman  citizens  and  wives  of  Roman  citizens,  but 
no  Roman  citizenesses. 

In  Germany  the  legal  status  of  women  has  been  some- 
what improved,  inasmuch  as  the  great  variety  of  existing 
laws  have  been  replaced  by  a  uniform  law.  whereby 
rights  enjoyed  by  women  here  and  there  have  been  made 
general.  Thereby,  unmarried  women  were  admited  to 
guardianship ;  women  were  permitted  to  act  as  witnesses, 
to  sign  contracts,  and  to  carry  on  a  business  independ- 
ently. Both  husband  and  wife  are  entitled  to  the  com- 
mon ownership  of  each  other's  property,  unless  the  de- 
mands made  by  either  party  may  be  regarded  as  an 
abuse  of  his  or  her  rights.  If  there  are  conflicting  opin- 
ions between  them  on  this  subject,  the  decision  rests 
with  the  husband,  who  also  is  entitled  to  determine  the 
place  of  residence.  If  the  husband  should  abuse  this 
right,  the  wife  is  exempt  from  obedience.  The  sole  man- 
agement of  the  household  rests  with  the  wife.  She  has 
the  so-called  power  of  the  keys,  which  empowers  her, 
within  her  domestic  sphere,  to  attend  to  her  husband's 
affairs  and  to  represent  him.  The  husband  is  .liable  foi 
his  wife's  debts.  But  the  wife's  power  of  the  keys  may 


274  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

be  restricted,  or  entirely  abolished,  by  her  husband. 
Should  he  abuse  his  power,  this  limitation  may  be  an- 
nulled by  the  courts.  The  wife  is  obliged  to  do  the 
housework  and  to  perform  tasks  in  her  husband's  busi- 
ness, but  only  where  such  occupations  are  customary,  in 
accordance  with  the  husband's  standard  of  living.  A  de- 
mand to  establish,  as  the  rule,  separate  rights  of  owner- 
ship by  husband  and  wife,  was  declined  by  the  Diet. 
This  can  only  be  obtained  by  means  of  the  marriage  con- 
tract, which  is  usually  neglected,  and  may  lead  to  dis- 
agreements later  on.  Instead,  community  of  manage- 
ment was  established.  The  husband  is  thereby  entitled 
to  dispose  of  his  wife's  property,  while. she  is  limited  to 
her  dowry.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wife  has  unrestricted 
control  over  whatever  she  may  earn  during  marriage,  by 
personal  labor  or  in  business.  The  husband  has  no  right 
to  deprive  the  wife  of  her  earnings  or  her  dowry.  The 
wife  may  also  demand  security,  in  case  she  has  good  rea- 
son to  fear  that  her  property  is  endangered,  which  she 
may  sometimes  learn  too  late.  She  may  also  enter  a 
complaint  to  have  the  common  ownership  abolished,  ;f 
her  husband  should  fail  to  provide  for  her  and  her  chil- 
dren. The  husband  is  liable  for  damage  resulting  from 
mismanagement. 

The  wife  may  be  grievously  wronged  by  the  existing 
divorce  laws.  For,  in  case  of  divorce,  the  joint  earnings 
of  husband  and  wife  belong  to  the  husband,  even  if  he  is 
the  guilty  party,  and  if  most  of  their  common  property 
has  been  earned  by  the  wife.  But  the  woman  is  entitled 
to  alimony,  according  to  her  station,  only  if  it  can  be 
shown  that  she  is  not  able  to  maintain  her  standard  of 
living  by  means  of  her  own  property  or  earnings. 

Paternal  control  has  been  replaced  by  the  joint  control 
of  both  parents,  but  in  case  of  disagreement  between  the 
parents,  the  decision  rests  with  the  father.  In  case  of  the 
father's  death,  parental  control,  including  the  manage- 
ment and  use  of  the  child's  property,  devolves  on  tht 
mother.  A  divorced  woman  has  no  right  to  represent  her 
children  legally,  or  to  control  their  property,  even  if  the 
children  have  been  awarded  to  her,  while  the  father  con- 
tinues to  enjoy  full  parental  rights. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  275 

In  England,  until  1870,  according  to  the  common  law, 
a  husband  was  entitled  to  all  the  personal  property  of  his 
wife.  Only  real  estate  remained  her  property  by  law,  but 
even  this  the  husband  was  entitled  to  manage  and  to  use. 
The  English  woman  was  a  mere  cipher  before  the  law. 
She  could  not  sign  any  legal  document,  not  even  a  will. 
She  was  her  husband's  chattel.  If  she  committed  an\ 
crime  in  her  husband's  presence,  he  was  held  responsible 
for  it,  since  she  was  regarded  as  a  minor.  In  case  she 
damaged  any  one's  property,  the  damage  was  viewed 
as  if  done  by  a  domestic  animal;  her  husband  was  an- 
swerable for  it.  In  1888  Bishop  J.  N.  Wood  delivered  a 
lecture  in  the  chapel  at  Westminster,  in  which  he  said, 
among  other  things,  that  as  late  as  a  century  ago  English 
women  had  not  been  permitted  to  eat  at  their  husbands' 
table,  nor  to  speak  until  they  were  spoken  to.  As  a  sym- 
bol of  his  marital  power,  a  whip  hung  above  the  bed, 
that  the  husband  was  permitted  to  wield  when  the  wife 
was  not  as  docile  as  her  lord  desired  her  to  be.  Only  her 
daughters  were  obliged  to  obey  her.  By  her  sons  she  was 
regarded  as  a  servant. 

By  the  laws  of  1870,  1882  and  1893,  the  woman  is  not 
only  entitled  to  all  the  property  brought  into  marriage 
by  her,  she  is  also  entitled  to  everything  she  may  obtain 
during  marriage  by  her  earnings,  by  inheritance,  or  by 
gift.  This  legal  relation  can  be  modified  only  by  special 
agreement  between  husband  and  wife.  In  this  respect 
English  legislation  has  followed  the  example  set  by  the 
United  States.  By  the  Custody  of  Infants'  Act,  of  1886., 
in  case  of  the  father's  death,  parental  control  devolves 
on  the  mother.  The  Intestate  Estates  Act,  of  1890,  still 
gives  the  man  a  privileged  position.  Both  husband  and 
wife  are  free  to  dispose  of  their  property  by  their  last  will 
and  testament.  But  if  the  wife  dies  intestate,  all  her 
personal  property  belongs  to  her  husband;  while,if  the 
husband  dies  intestate,  his  widow  is  entitled  to  only  one- 
third  of  his  personal  property  and  income  on  real  estate; 
the  remainder  belongs  to  his  children.  Many  remnants 
of  the  old  mediaeval  law  remain  in  force  that  greatly  im- 
pair the  legal  status  of  married  women.  As  we  have 
seen,  the  divorce  laws  are  still  highly  unfavorable  to 


276  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

women.  If  a  man  commits  adultery,  that  alone  is  no 
ground  for  divorce  for  the  woman,  but  only  in  connection 
with  cruelty,  bigamy,  rape,  etc.* 

The  civil  law  is  especially  unfavorable  to  women  in 
France,  and  in  all  those  countries — mostly  Romanic 
countries — that  are  strongly  influenced  by  the  French 
"code  civil,"  or  where  it  has  been  adopted  in  full,  with 
some  modifications.  This  is  the  case  in  Belgium,  Spain, 
Portugal,  Italy,  Russian  Poland,  the  Netherlands,  and  in 
most  of  the  cantons  of  Switzerland.  There  is  a  saying 
by  Napoleon  I.  that  is  characteristic  of  his  conception  of 
the  position  of  women,  and  that  still  holds  true;  it  is-. 
"One  thing  is  not  French,  a  woman  who  may  do  as  she 
pleases."**  As  soon  as  a  French  woman  marries  she  is 
placed  under  the  guardianship  of  her  husband.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Code  Civil,  she  may  not  appear  in  court  with- 
out the  consent  of  her  husband,  not  even  if  she  is  con- 
nected with  a  lawsuit.  The  husband  shall  protect  his 
wife,  and  the  wife  shall  obey  her  husband.  He  controls 
the  property  brought  into  marriage  by  his  wife;  he  may 
sell,  rent,  or  mortgage  same,  without  being  obliged  to 
ask  her  consent.  The  result  is,  that  women  frequently 
live  in  a  condition  of  absolute  servitude.  A  man  may 
spend  his  wife's  earnings  on  drink,  or  on  frivolous  wom- 
en ;  he  may  gamble  and  run  into  debt,  leaving  his  wife 
and  children  in  want;  he  is  even  entitled  to  demand  from 
an  employer  the  wages  his  wife  has  earned.  Under  such 
circumstances  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  man> 
women  prefer  to  desist  from  marriage,  as  was  frequently 
seen  in  France. 

In  most  Romanic  countries  women  cannot  act  as  wit- 
nesses to  legal  documents,  contracts,  wills,  etc.  In 
France  this  was  the  case  until  1897.  But  they  are  per- 
mitted— by  a  strange  inconsistency —  to  act  as  witnesees 
at  court  in  all  criminal  cases,  where  their  testimony  may 
perhaps  lead  to  the  execution  of  a  human  being.  In 
criminal  law  woman  is  everywhere  regarded  as  man's 


*A.  Chapman  and  M.  Chapman — The  Status  of  Women  under  the 
English  Law.    London,  1909. 
**L.  Bridel — La  puissance  maritale.    Lausanne,  1879, 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  277 

equal,  and  crimes  and  transgressions  committed  by  her 
are  measured  by  the  same  standard  as  those  committed 
by  man.  Our  law-makers  seem  blissfully  unconscious  of 
this  glaring  inconsistency.  As  a  widow,  a  woman  may 
make  her  will,  but  in  a  great  many  states  she  is  not  ad- 
mitted as  a  witness  to  a  will,  yet  she  may  be  appointed 
as  executrix.  In  Italy  women  are  admitted  as  witnesses 
in  civil  law  since  1877. 

The  privileged  position  of  men  is  especially  manifest 
in  the  divorce  laws.  According  to  the  "Code  Civil,"  in 
France  a  man  might  obtain  a  divorce  if  his  wife  commit- 
ted adultery ;  but  a  woman  could  not  obtain  it,  unless 
her  husband  had  brought  his  concubine  into  their  home. 
This  article  has  been  changed  by  the  divorce  law  of  July, 
27,  1884,  but  in  French  criminal  law  the  distinction  has 
been  maintained,  which  is  very  characteristic  of  the 
French  law-makers.  If  a  woman  has  been  convicted  of 
adultery  she  is  punishable  by  imprisonment  of  from 
three  months  to  two  years.  But  the  man  is  punishable 
only  if  he  has  maintained  a  concubine  in  his  own  house- 
hold, as  per  the  former  article  of  the  "Code  Civil."  If 
found  guilty,  his  only  punishment  is  a  fine  of  from  100  to 
2000  francs.  Such  inequality  before  the  law  would  be 
impossible  if  there  were  women  in  the  parliament  ol 
France.  Similar  laws  are  in  force  in  Belgium.  The  pen- 
alty for  adultery  when  committed  by  a  woman  is  the  same 
as  in  France.  The  man  goes  unpunished,  unless  adultery 
has  been  committed  by  him  in  his  and  his  wife's  domi- 
cile ;  in  that  event  he  may  be  punished  by  imprisonment 
of  from  one  month  to  one  year.  In  Belgium  the  injustice 
is  not  quite  as  glaring  as  in  France,  but  in  both  coun- 
tries we  find  one  standard  of  law  for  the  man  and  an- 
other one  for  the  woman.  Under  the  influence  of  French 
law  similar  provisions  have  been  made  in  Spain  and 
Portugal.  According  to  the  civil  law  of  Italy,  enacted 
in  1865,  a  woman  cannot  obtain  a  divorce  on  the  ground 
of  adultery,  unless  her  husband  maintains  his  concubine 
in  his  own  home,  or  in  a  place  where  her  presence  ap- 
pears as  a  particular  insult  to  the  wife.  In  1907,  to- 
gether with  the  enactment  of  June  21,  which  has  modified 
a  number  of  articles  of  the  Code  Civil  in  regard  to  mar- 


278  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

riage,  both  chambers  finally  adopted  the  law  of  July  13, 
whereby  the  wife  became  the  sole  owner  of  property 
earned  by  her,  or  obtained  by  inheritance  or  gift.  The 
husband  has  been  deprived  of  his  former  control  over 
the  personal  property  of  his  wife.  That  is  the  first  breach 
in  French  law,  and  thereby  French  women  have  obtained 
the  same  legal  status  that  was  obtained  for  English 
women  by  the  law  of  1870. 

Much  more  advanced  than  the  "Code  Civil"  and  more 
advanced  also  than  German  civil  law,  is  the  new  civil 
law  of  Switzerland  that  was  adopted  on  December  10, 
1907,  and  will  come  into  force  on  January  i,  1912.  Until 
now  the  various  cantons  of  Switzerland  had  their  own 
laws.  In  Geneva,  Waadt,  and  Italian  Switzerland  the> 
were  partly  founded  on  the  "Code  Civil."  In  Bern  and 
Lucerne  they  were  founded  on  Austrian  law,  and  in 
Schwytz,  Uri,  Unterwalden,  etc.,  the  old  common  law 
prevailed.  Now  Switzerland  is  to  have  a  uniform  code 
of  laws.  The  freedom  of  the  wife  and  the  children  is  as- 
sured. The  new  law  provides  that  the  wife  is  entitled  to 
one-third  of  her  husband's  income,  even  if  she  is  only  oc- 
cupied as  his  assistant  or  housekeeper.  In  regard  to  in- 
heritance, also,  the  laws  are  more  favorable  to  women 
than  the  German  laws.  When  a  man  dies,  his  wife  is  not 
only  entitled  to  one-half  of  his  property,  but  also,  to- 
gether with  the  man's  parents,  to  the  lifelong  use  of  the 
income  from  the  other  half.  If  people  owe  money  to  a 
man  who  fails  to  provide  for  his  wife  and  children,  the 
judge  may  instruct  them  to  pay  these  debts,  not  to  the 
man  himself,  but  to  his  wife.  The  law  no  longer  forbids 
a  divorced  person  to  marry  the  person  with  whom  he  has 
committed  adultery.  The  property  rights  of  married  per- 
sons are  mainly  determined  by  the  marriage  contract 
that  may  be  drawn  up  by  both  before  and  during  mar- 
riage. Illegitimate  children — in  cases  where  the  mother^ 
had  been  given  a  promise  of  marriage — are  not  only  en- 
titled to  alimony  from  their  father,  as  according  to  the 
new  German  law,  but  they  are  also  entitled  to  their  fa- 
ther's name,  and  thereby  obtain  the  full  rights  of  legiti- 
mate children. 

Swedish  women  are  given  full  control  over  their  own 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  279 

earnings  by  a  law  of  Dec.  n,  1874.  In  Denmark  a  simi- 
lar law  was  enacted  in  1880.  According  to  Danish  law 
no  claims  may  be  made  on  a  woman's  property  for  the 
payment  of  her  husband's  debts.  The  Norwegian  law  of 
1888  and  the  Finnish  law  of  1889  are  quite  similar.  The 
married  woman  has  the  same  control  over  her  property 
as  the  unmarried  woman ;  only  some  exceptions  are  pro- 
vided for  that  are  stated  in  the  law.  In  the  Norwegian 
law  it  is  clearly  stated,  that  the  woman  becomes  a  de- 
pendent by  marriage. 

"In  the  Scandinavian  countries,  as  elsewhere,  this  uni- 
versal movement  to  extend  the  property  rights  of  women 
originated  in  the  same  way  as  it  did  in  England :  through 
the  gainful  employment  of  married  women.  The  ruling 
classes  were  far  more  willing  to  abandon  the  patriarchial 
superiority  of  the  common  man  over  his  working  wife, 
than  that  of  the  man  from  their  own  ranks  over  his  prop- 
ertied wife."* 

In  the  law  of  May  27,  1908,  Danish  legislation  ad- 
vanced still  another  step.  If  a  husband  and  father  fails 
to  provide  for  his  family,  the  wife  and  children  may  have 
the  sum,  awarded  to  them  by  the  authorities,  advanced 
out  of  the  public  funds. 

In  most  countries  the  father  has  the  sole  control  over 
the  children  and  the  right  to  determine  their  education. 
Only  in  some  countries  the  mother  is  given  joint  control 
with  the  father  in  a  more  or  less  subordinate  way.  The 
old  Roman  principle,  whereby  the  father  had  complete 
power  over  his  children,  everywhere  forms  the  key-note 
of  legislation. 

In  Russia  married  women  have  some  control  over  their 
property,  but  as  bread-winners  they  remain  utterly  sub- 
servient to  their  husbands.  No  pass — which  is  absolutely 
essential  for  any  change  of  residence — is  ever  issued  to  a 
married  woman  without  her  husband's  consent.  In  or- 
der to  accept  a  position  or  to  practice  any  trade  or  pro- 
fession, she  must  also  have  her  husband's  permission.  Di- 
vorce is  made  so  difficult,  that  it  can  be  obtained  only  in 
very  rare  cases.  The  position  of  Russian  women  was 

*Marianne  Weber — Wife  and  Mother  in  the  Evolution  of  Law. 
Tubingen,  1907. 


280  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

much  more  independent  formerly  in  the  old  peasant  com- 
munities, which  was  due  to  the  remaining  communistic 
institutions  or  to  the  reminiscences  of  these  institutions. 
The  peasant  woman  was  the  manager  of  her  own  estate. 
Communism  is  the  most  favorable  social  condition  for 
women.  We  have  seen  this  from  our  exposition  of  the 
matriarchal  period.* 

In  theUnited  States  the  women  have  succeeded  in  win- 
ning almost  complete  equality  before  the  law;  they  have 
also  prevented  the  introduction  of  English  and  other  laws 
regulating  prostitution. 

2. — The  Struggle  for  Political  Equality. 

The  evident  inequality  of  women  before  the  law  has 
caused  the  more  advanced  among  them  to  demand  politi- 
cal rights,  in  order  to  attain  their  equality  by  means  of 
legislation.  Tile  same  thought  has  also  led  the  working 
class  to  direct  their  agitation  toward  the  conquest  of  po- 
litical power.  What  is  right  for  the  working  class,  can- 
not be  wrong  for  the  women.  Being  oppressed,  devoid  o^ 
rights  and,  in  many  instances,  disregarded,  it  is  not  onl> 
their  right,  but  their  duty  to  defend  themselves  and  to 
adopt  any  method  that  appears  good  to  them,  so  that 
they  may  win  an  independent  position.  Of  course  these 
endeavors  are  opposed  by  the  usual  reactionary  croak- 
ings.  Let  us  see  to  what  extent  these  are  justified. 

Women  possessing  eminent  intellectual  abilities  have 


*The  correctness  of  this  conception  may  be  seen  from  the  comedy 
by  Aristophanes,  "The  Popular  Assembly  of  Women."  In  this  com- 
edy Aristophanes  depicts  how  the  Athenian  state  was  so  mismanaged 
that  no  one  knew  what  to  do.  In  the  popular  assembly  of  the  citizens 
of  Athens  the  prytanes  submit  the  question  how  the  state  is  to  be 
saved.  A  woman,  disguised  as  a  man,  moves  to  entrust  the  govern- 
ment to  the  women,  and  this  motion  is  carried  without  resistance, 
"because  it  was  the  only  thing  not  yet  tried  in  Athens."  The  women 
proceed  to  steer  the  ship  of  state  and  immediately  introduce  com- 
munism. Of  course,  Aristophanes  ridicules  this  condition,  but  the 
characteristic  part  of  his  play  is,  that  he  has  the  women  introduce 
communism  as  the  only  rational  social  organization  from  their  point 
of  view,  as  soon  as  they  come  into  power.  Aristophanes  had  no  idea 
of  how  much  truth  was  in  his  jest. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  281 

influenced  politics  at  all  times  and  among  all  peoples, 
even  where  they  were  not  endowed  with  the  power  of 
sovereigns.  Even  the  papal  court  was  not  exempt  from 
this.  If  they  could  not  exert  any  influence  by  means  of 
the  rights  conceded  to  them,  they  did  so  by  their  intellec- 
tual superiority,  even  by  intrigues.  For  many  centuries 
their  influence  was  particularly  strong  at  the  court  of 
France,  as  also  at  the  Spanish  and  Italian  courts.  At  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  at  the  court  of  Philip  V. 
of  Spain,  Marie  of  Tremonille,  Countess  of  Bracciano 
and  Princess  of  Ursin,  was  the  prime-minister  of  Spain 
for  thirteen  years,  and  during  this  time  very  ably  con- 
ducted Spanish  politics.  As  the  mistresses  of  rulers, 
many  women  have  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  great  politi- 
cal influence ;  we  need  but  mention  the  well-known  nameb 
of  Maintenon,  the  mistress  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  Pompa- 
dour, the  mistress  of  Louis  XV.  The  great  intellectual 
awakening  of  the  eighteenth  century,  that  produced  men 
like  Montesquieu,  Voltaire,  d'Allembert,  Holbach,  Hel- 
vetius,  La  Mettrie,  Rousseau,  and  many  others,  did  not 
fail  to  affect  the  women.  This  great  movement,  which 
questioned  the  justification  of  the  fundamental  principles 
of  the  state  and  feudal  society  and  helped  to  undermine 
them,  may  have  been  joined  by  some  women  to  follow 
the  fashion,  to  satisfy  their  love  of  intrigue,  or  for  othei 
unworthy  motives.  But  a  great  many  women  were  im- 
pelled to  take  part  in  this  movement  by  their  profound 
interest  and  enthusiasm  for  its  noble  aims.  Decades  be- 
fore the  outbreak  of  the  great  revolution,  which  swept 
over  France  like  a  purifying  cloud-burst,  tore  the  old  or- 
der asunder  and  cast  it  down,  causing  jubilation  among 
the  most  advanced  minds  of  the  age,  women  had 
thronged  into  the  scientific  and  political  clubs,  where 
philosophical,  scientific,  religious,  social  and  political 
problems  were  discussed  with  unwonted  daring,  and  had 
taken  part  in  the  discussions.  When  at  length,  in  July, 
1789,  the  storming  of  the  Bastille  ushered  in  the  great 
revolution,  women  of  the  upper  classes  and  women  of  the 
common  people  participated  actively  and  exerted  a  very 
noticeable  influence  both  for  and  against  it.  They  par- 
ticipated excessively  in  both  good  and  evil  wherever  an 


282  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

opportunity  presented  itself.  The  majority  of  historians 
have  taken  more  notice  of  the  excesses  of  the  revolution 
than  of  its  great  and  noble  deeds.  These  excesses,  by  the 
way,  were  only  too  natural,  for  they  were  the  result  of 
tremendous  exasperation  at  the  unspeakable  corruption, 
the  exploitation,  the  imposition,  the  baseness  and  villany 
of  the  ruling  classes.  Under  the  influence  of  these  biased 
descriptions,  Schiller  wrote  the  lines :  "And  women  there 
become  hyenas  and  mock  at  horror  and  despair."  And 
yet  in  those  years  women  have  set  so  many  noble  exam- 
ples of  heroism,  magnanimity,  and  admirable  self-sacri- 
fice, that  to  write  an  impartial  book  on  "the  women  in 
the  great  revolution,"  would  mean  the  erection  of  a  noble 
monument  in  their  honor.*  According  to  Michelet,  wom- 
en even  were  the  van-guard  of  the  revolution.  The  gen- 
eral poverty  and  want  from  which  the  French  people  suf- 
fered under  the  predatory  and  disgraceful  rule  of  the 
Bourbon  kings,  especially  affected  the  women,  as  is  al- 
ways the  case  under  similar  conditions.  Being  excluded 
from  almost  every  decent  means  of  support,  tens  of  thou- 
sands of  them  fell  victims  to  prostitution.  To  this  was 
added  the  famine  of  1789,  which  increased  the  suffering 
of  women  and  children  to  the  utmost.  This  famine  led 
them  to  storm  the  town-hall  in  October  and  to  march  in 
masses  to  Versailles,  the  seat  of  the  court.  It  also 
caused  a  number  of  them  to  petition  the  national  assem- 
bly "that  the  equality  between  man  and  woman  be  rein- 
stated, that  work  and  employment  be  opened  to  them  and 
that  they  be  given  positions  suited  to  their  abilities."  As 
the  women  recognized  that  they  needed  power  to  win 
their  rights,  but  that  they  could  attain  power  only  by  or- 
ganizing and  by  standing  together  in  great  numbers,  they 
organized  women's  clubs  throughout  France,  some  of 
which  had  a  surprisingly  large  membership,  and  also 
took  part  in  the  men's  meetings.  While  brilliant  Madame 
Roland  preferred  to  play  a  leading  political  part  among 
the  'statesmen"  of  the  French  Revolution,  the  Giron- 
distes,  passionate  and  eloquent  Olympe  de  Gouges  took 


*Emma    Adler— Famous     Women    of    the     French     Revolution 
Vienna,  1906. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  283 

the  leadership  of  the  women  of  the  people  and  espoused 
their  cause  with  all  the  enthusiasm  of  her  fervent  tem- 
perament. 

When  the  assembly  proclaimed  "the  rights  of  man" 
(les  droits  de  rhomme),  in  1793,  she  promptly  recognized 
that  they  were  only  rights  of  men.  In  opposition  to 
these,  Olympe  de  Gouges,  together  with  Rose  Lacombe 
and  others,  wrote  "The  rights  of  Women,"  in  seventeen 
articles.  On  the  28  Brumaire  (November  20,  1793),  she 
defended  the  rights  before  the  Paris  Commune,  with  ar- 
guments that  are  still  fully  justified.  In  her  argumenta- 
tion the  following  sentence,  characteristic  of  the  situa- 
tion, was  contained :  "If  a  woman  has  the  right  to  mount 
the  scaffold  she  must  also  have  the  right  to  mount  the 
platform."  Her  demands  remained  unfulfilled.  But  her 
reference  to  the  right  of  woman  to  mount  a  scaffold  met 
with  bloody  confirmation.  Her  defence  of  the  rights  of 
women  on  the  one  hand,  and  her  struggle  against  the 
atrocities  of  the  assembly  on  the  other,  made  her  appear 
ripe  for  the  scaffold  to  the  assembly.  She  was  beheaded 
on  the  3d  of  November,  of  the  same  year.  Five  days 
later  Madame  Roland  was  beheaded,  also.  Both  went  to 
their  death  heroically.  Shortly  before  these  executions, 
on  October  17,  1793,  the  assembly  had  shown  its  attitude 
of  hostility  toward  women  by  deciding  to  suppress  all  the 
women's  clubs.  Later  on,  when  the  women  continued  to 
protest  against  the  wrong  perpetrated  against  them,  they 
were  even  forbidden  to  attend  the  assembly  and  the  pub- 
lic meetings,  and  were  treated  as  rebels. 

When  monarchical  Europe  marched  against  France, 
and  the  assembly  declared  "the  fatherland  to  be  in  dan- 
ger," Parisian  women  offered  to  do  what  was  done  twen- 
ty years  later  by  enthusiastic  Prussian  women,  to  bear 
arms  in  defence  of  the  fatherland,  thereby  hoping  to 
prove  their  right  to  equality.  But  they  were  opposed  in 
the  commune  by  the  radical  Chaumette,  who  addressed 
them  thus:  "Since  when  are  women  permitted  to  den> 
their  sex  and  to  make  men  of  themselves?  Since  when 
is  it  customary  for  them  to  neglect  the  tender  care  of  their 
households,  to  forsake  the  cradles  of  their  children,  to 
come  into  public  places,  to  speak  from  platforms,  to  en- 


284  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

ter  the  ranks  of  the  army,  with  one  word,  to  perform 
those  duties  which  nature  has  destined  man  to  perform? 
Nature  has  said  to  the  man:  'Be  a  man!  The  races,  the 
hunt,  agriculture,  politics,  all  exertions  are  your  privi- 
lege/ She  has  said  to  the  woman :  'Be  a  woman!  The 
care  of  your  children,  the  details  of  the  household,  the 
sweet  restlessness  of  motherhood,  these  are  your  tasks.' 
Foolish  women,  why  do  you  seek  to  become  men?  Are 
human  beings  not  properly  divided?  What  more  do  you 
ask?  In  the  name  of  Nature,  remain  what  you  are,  ana 
far  from  envying  us  our  stormy  lives,  make  us  forget 
them  in  the  midst  of  our  families  by  letting  our  eyes  rest 
upon  the  lovely  sight  of  our  children,  happy  in  your  ten- 
der care."  Undoubtedly  the  radical  Chaumette  expressed 
the  opinion  held  by  most  men.  It  is  generally  consid- 
ered an  appropriate  division  of  labor  .that  men  defend  the 
country  and  women  care  for  hearth  and  home.  For  the 
rest  the  oratorical  effusion  of  Chaumette  consists  of  mere 
phrases.  It  is  not  true  that  man  has  borne  the  burdens 
of  agriculture.  From  primeval  days  down  to  the  present 
woman  has  contributed  a  large  share  to  agriculture.  The 
exertions  of  the  hunt  and  the  races  are  no  "exertions/' 
but  a  pleasure  to  men,  and  politics  entails  dangers  only 
for  those  who  combat  current  opinions,  while  to  others  it 
offers  at  least  as  much  pleasure  as  exertion.  Nothing 
but  the  egotism  of  man  finds  expression  in  this  speech. 

Aims  similar  to  those  pursued  by  the  Encyclopedists 
and  the  great  revolution  in  France  found  expression  in 
the  United  States,  when,  during  the  seventies  and  eight- 
ies of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  colonists  won  their 
struggle  for  independence  from  England  and  established 
a  democratic  constitution.  At  that  time,  Mercy  Ottis 
Warren  and  the  wife  of  the  second  president  of  the 
United  States,  Mrs.  Adams,  together  with  a  few  other 
women,  favored  political  equality.  It  was  due  to  their 
influence  that  the  State  of  New  Jersey  bestowed  the 
right  of  suffrage  upon  women,  of  which  it  deprived  them 
again  in  1807.  In  France,  even  before  the  outbreak  of 
the  revolution,  Condorcet,  later  a  Girondist,  published  a 
brilliantly  written  essay  in  favor  of  woman's  suffrage  and 
the  political  equality  01  both  sexes. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  285 

Inspired  by  the  great  events  in  the  neighboring  coun- 
try, it  was  brave  Mary  Wollstonecraft,  born  in  I7S9,  who 
proclaimed  woman's  cause  at  the  other  side  of  the  chan- 
nel. In  1790  she  wrote  a  book  in  opposition  to  Burke, 
one  of  the  most  vehement  opponents  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution, in  which  she  defended  the  rights  of  man.  Soon 
after  she  proceeded  to  demand  the  rights  of  man  for  her 
own  sex.  In  her  book,  published  in  1792,  "A  Vindica- 
tion of  the  Rights  of  Women,"  she  severely  criticised  her 
own  sex,  but  demanded  and  bravely  defended  complete 
equality  for  women  in  behalf  of  the  common  welfare. 
She  met  with  vehement  opposition  and  was  subjected  tJ 
severe  and  unjust  attacks.  Heart-broken  by  bitter  in- 
ward struggles,  she  died  in  1797,  misunderstood  and  ridi- 
culed by  her  contemporaries. 

At  the  same  time,  when  the  first,  serious  endeavors  to 
obtain  political  equality  for  women  were  being  made  in 
France,  England,  and  the  United  States,  even  in  Ger- 
many, which  was  particularly  retrogressive  then,  a  Ger- 
man writer — Th.  G.  v.  Hippel — anonymously  published  a 
book  in  Berlin,  in  1792,  on  the  "Civic  Improvement  in 
the  Condition  of  Women,"  in  which  he  defended  the 
equal  rights  of  women.  At  that  time  a  book  on  the  civic 
improvement  in  the  condition  of  men  would  have  been 
equally  justified.  We  must  therefore  doubly  admire  the 
courage  of  this  man,  who,  in  his  book,  ventured  to  draw 
all  the  logical  conclusions  from  social  and  political  sex 
equality  and  defended  same  very  ably  and  intelligently. 

Since  then  the  demand  for  political  rignts  of  women 
has  remained  dormant  for  a  long  time ;  but  gradually  it 
has  been  taken  up  again  by  the  woman's  movement  in  ail 
countries  and  has  become  realized  in  a  number  of  states. 
In  France  the  St.  Simonists  and  Fourierists  favored  sex 
equality,  and,  in  1848,  the  Fourierist  Considerant  moved 
in  the  constitutional  committee  of  the  French  parliament 
to  bestow  equal  political  rights  upon  women.  In  1851, 
Pierre  Leroux  repeated  the  motion  in  the  chamber,  but 
likewise  unsuccessfully. 

At  present  matters  have  an  entirely  different  aspect. 
The  development  of  our  social  conditions  and  all  social 
relations  have  undergone  a  tremendous  transformation 


286  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

and  have  at  the  same  time  transformed  the  position  of 
women.  In  all  civilized  states  we  find  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands and  millions  of  women  employed  in  the  most  varied 
professions,  just  like  men,  and  every  year  trie  number  of 
women  increases,  who  must  rely  on  their  own  strength 
and  ability  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  The  nature  ot 
our  social  and  political  conditions,  therefore,  can  no 
longer  remain  a  matter  of  indifference  to  women.  They 
must  be  interested  in  questions  like  the  following: 
Whether  or  not  the  control  of  domestic  and  foreign  af- 
fairs favor  war ;  whether  or  not  the  state  should  annually 
keep  hundreds  of  thousands  of  healthy  men  in  the  army 
and  drive  tens  of  thousands  from  the  country;  whether 
or  not  the  necessities  of  life  should  be  raised  in  price  by 
taxes  and  duties  at  a  time  when  the  means  of  subsist- 
ence are  very  scarce  to  a  great  majority,  etc.  Women 
also  pay  direct  ancf  indirect  taxes  from  their  property 
and  their  earnings.  The  educational  system  is  of  the 
greatest  interest  to  women,  for  the  manner  of  education 
is  a  determining  factor  in  the  position  of  their  sex;  it  is 
of  special  importance  to  mothers. 

The  hundreds  of  thousands  and  millions  of  women  em- 
ployed in  hundreds  of  trades  and  professions  are  person- 
ally and  vitally  concerned  in  the  nature  of  our  social 
legislation.  Laws  relating  to  the  length  of  the  work- 
day, night-work,  child  labor,  wages,  safety  appliances  in 
factories  and  workshops,  in  one  word,  all  labor  laws,  as 
also  insurance  laws,  etc.,  are  of  the  greatest  interest  to 
working  women.  Workingmen  are  only  very  insuf- 
ficiently informed  about  the  conditions  existing  in  many 
branches  of  industry  in  which  women  are  chiefly  or  ex- 
clusively employed.  It  is  to  the  interest  of  the  employ- 
ers to  conceal  existing  evils  that  they  have  caused;  and 
in  many  instances  factory  inspection  does  not  include 
trades  in  which  women  are  exclusively  employed ;  yet  in 
these  very  branches  of  industry  protection  is  most  need- 
ful. We  need  but  point  to  the  workshops  in  our  large 
cities,  where  seamstresses,  dressmakers,  milliners,  etc., 
are  crowded  together.  We  hardly  ever  hear  a  complaint 
trom  their  midst,  and  there  is  no  investigation  of  their 
condition.  Women  as  bread-winners  are  also  interested 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  287 

in  the  commerce  and  custom-  laws  and  in  all  civil  laws. 
There  can  no  longer  be  any  doubt,  that  it  is  as  important 
to  women  as  it  is  to  men,  to  influence  the  nature  of  our 
conditions  by  means  of  legislation.  The  participation  of 
women  in  public  life  would  give  it  a  new  impetus  and 
open  new  vistas. 

Demands  of  this  sort  are  briefly  set  aside,  with  the  re- 
ply: "Women  don't  understand  politics;  most  of  them 
do  not  wish  to  have  a  vote  and  would  not  know  how  to 
use  it."  That  is  both  true  and  false.  It  is  true  that  until 
now,  in  Germany,  at  least,  not  very  many  women  have 
demanded  political  equality.  The  first  German  woman 
to  proclaim  the  rights  of  women,  as  early  as  the  sixties 
of  the  last  century,  was  Hedwig  Dohm.  Recently  the 
Socialist  working  women  have  been  the  chief  supporters 
of  woman's  suffrage  and  have  undertaken  an  active  agi- 
tation for  the  winning  of  the  ballot. 

The  argument  that  women  have  until  now  shown  only 
a  very  moderate  interest  in  politics,  does  not  prove  any- 
thing at  all.  If  women  have  failed  to  care  about  politics 
formerly,  that  does  not  signify  that  they  ought  not  to  care 
about  them  now.  The  same  arguments  that  are  advanced 
against  woman  suffrage  were,  during  the  first  half  of  the 
sixties,  advanced  against  universal  manhood  suffrage.  In 
1863  the  writer  of  this  book  himself  was  among  those  who 
opposed  it.  Four  years  later  it  made  possible  his  election 
to  the  Diet.  Tens  of  thousands  experienced  a  similar  de- 
velopment. Nevertheless  there  still  are  many  men  who 
either  fail  to  make  use  of  their  political  right,  or  do  not 
know  how  to  use  it.  Yet  that  would  be  no  reason  to  de- 
prive them  of  it.  During  the  parliamentary  elections  usu- 
ally from  25  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  voters  fail  to  vote,  and 
among  these  are  members  of  all  classes.  While  among 
the  70  to  75  per  cent,  who  do  vote,  the  majority,  in  our 
opinion,  vote  as  they  ought  not  to  vote  if  they  understood 
their  own  advantage.  That  they  do  not  understand  is 
due  to  a  lack  of  political  education.  But  political  educa- 
tion is  not  obtained  by  withholding  political  rights  from 
the  masses.  It  is  obtained  only  by  the  practice  of  politi- 
cal rights.  Practice  alone  makes  perfect.  The  ruling 
classes  have  always  known  it  to  be  in  their  own  interest 


288  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

to  keep  the  great  majority  of  the  people  in  political  de- 
pendence. Therefore  it  has  been  the  task  of  a  determined, 
class  conscious  minority  to  struggle  for  the  common 
good  with  energy  and  enthusiasm,  and  to  arouse  the 
masses  from  their  indifference  and  inertia.  It  has  been 
thus  in  all  the  great  movements  of  history,  and  therefore 
it  need  not  surprise  or  discourage  us  that  it  is  the  same 
with  the  woman's  movement.  The  success  that  has  been 
obtained  so  far  shows,  that  work  and  sacrifice  are  not  in 
vain  and  that  the  future  will  bring  victory. 

As  soon  as  women  shall  have  obtained  equal  rights 
with  men,  the  consciousness  of  their  duties  will  be 
awakened  in  them.  When  asked  to  vote  they  will  begin 
to  question  "why"  and  "for  whom." 

Thereby  a  new  source  of  interest  will  be  established  be- 
tween man  and  woman  that,  far  from  harming  their  mutu- 
al relation,  will  considerably  improve  it.  The  inexperi- 
enced woman  will  naturally  turn  to  the  more  experienced 
man.  Therefrom  an  exchange  of  ideas  and  mutual  in- 
struction will  result,  a  relation  that  until  now  has  been 
very  rare  between  man  and  woman.  This  will  give  theii 
life  a  new  charm.  The  unfortunate  differences  in  educa- 
tion and  conception  between  the  sexes  that  frequently 
lead  to  disputes,  breed  discord  in  regard  to  the  various 
duties  of  the  man  and  injure  the  public  welfare,  will  be 
adjusted  more  and  more.  A  congenial  and  like-minded 
wife  will  support  a  man  in  his  endeavors,  instead  of  hin- 
dering him.  If  other  tasks  should  prevent  her  from  being 
active  herself,  she  will  encourage  the  man  to  do  his  duty. 
She  will  also  be  willing  to  sacrifice  a  fraction  of  the  in- 
come for  a  newspaper  and  for  purposes  of  agitation,  be- 
cause the  newspaper  will  mean  instruction  and  entertain- 
ment to  her,  and  because  she  will  understand  that  by  the 
sacrifices  for  purposes  of  agitation,  a  more  worthy  human 
existence  can  be  won  for  herself,  her  husband  and  her 
children. 

Thus  the  common  service  of  the  public  welfare,  that  is 
closely  linked  with  the  individual  welfare,  will  elevate 
both  man  and  woman.  The  opposite  of  that  will  be  at- 
tained which  is  claimedN  by  short-sighted  persons  or  by 
the  enemies  of  equal  rights',  and  this  relation  between  the 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  289 

sexes  will  develop  and  become  more  beautiful  as  im- 
proved social  conditions  will  liberate  both  man  and  wom- 
an from  material  care  and  excessive  burdens  of  toil. 
Here,  as  in  other  cases,  practice  and  education  will  help 
along.  If  I  do  not  go  into  the  water  I  will  never  learn  to 
swim ;  if  I  do  not  study  and  practice  a  foreign  language, 
I  will  never  learn  to  speak  it.  That  is  readily  understood 
by  everyone ;  but  many  fail  to  understand  that  the  same 
holds  true  of  the  affairs  of  the  state  and  society.  Are 
our  women  less  capable  than  the  inferior  Negro  race 
that  was  given  political  equality  in  North  America?  Or 
shall  a  highly  cultured,  educated  woman  be  entitled  to 
fewer  rights  than  the  most  coarse  and  ignorant  man,  only 
because  blind  chance  brought  the  latter  into  the  world 
as  a  male  being?  Has  the  son  a  greater  right  than  the 
mother  from  whom  he  has  perhaps  inherited  his  best 
qualities  and  who  made  him  what  he  is?  Such  "justice" 
is  strange,  indeed. 

Moreover,  we  are  no  longer  risking  a  leap  into  the 
dark  and  unknown.  North  America,  New  Zealand,  and 
Finland  have  paved  the  way.  On  the  effects  of  woman 
suffrage  in  Wyoming,  Justice  Kingman,  from  Laramie, 
wrote  to  "The  Woman's  Journal,"  on  November  12,  1872, 
as  follows:  "It  is  three  years  to-day  that  women  wer& 
enfranchised  in  our  territory  and  were  also  given  the 
right  to  be  elected  to  office,  as  all  other  voters.  During 
this  time  they  have  taken  part  in  the  elections  and  have 
been  elected  to  various  offices ;  they  have  acted  as  jurors 
and  as  justices  of  the  peace.  Although  there  probably 
still  are  some  among  us  who  oppose  the  participation  of 
women,  on  principle,  I  do  not  believe  any  one  can  deny 
that  the  participation  of  women  in  our  elections  has 
exerted  an  educational  influence.  The  elections  became 
more  quiet  and  orderly,  and  at  the  same  time  our  courts 
were  enabled  to  punish  various  kinds  of  criminals  who 
had  been  allowed  to  go  unpunished  until  then.  When 
the  territory  was  orgainzed,  for  instance,  there  was  hard- 
ly a  person  who  did  not  carry  a  revolver  and  make  use  of 
same  upon  the  slightest  provocation.  I  do  not  remember 
a  single  case  where  a  person  had  been  convicted  of  shoot- 
ing by  a  jury  composed  entirely  of  men ;  but,  with  two  01 


2go  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

three  women  among  the  jurors,  they  always  followed  the 
instructions  of  the  judge." 

The  prevailing  sentiment  in  regard  to  woman  suffrage 
in  Wyoming,  twenty-five  years  after  its  introduction,  was 
expressed  in  a  proclamation  by  the  legislature  of  that 
state  to  all  the  legislatures  of  the  country.  It  read : 

"Whereas,  Wyoming  was  the  first  State  to  adopt 
woman  suffrage,  which  has  been  in  operation  since 
1869,  and  was  adopted  in  the  constitution  of  the  State 
in  1890;  during  which  time  women  have  exercised  the 
privilege  as  generally  as  men,  with  the  result  that  bet- 
ter candidates  have  been  elected  for  office,  methods  of 
election  purified,  the  character  of  legislation  improved, 
civic  intelligence  increased,  and  womanhood  developed 
to  a  greater  usefulness  by  political  responsibility; 
therefore, 

Resolved,  by  the  House  of  Representatives,  the 
Senate  concurring,  that,  in  view  of  these  results,  the 
enfranchisement  of  women  in  every  State  and  Terri- 
tory of  the  American  Union  is  hereby  recommended  as 
a  measure  tending  to  the  advancement  of  a  higher  and 
better  social  order." 

It  is  certain  that  the  enfranchisement  of  women  has 
shown  many  advantageous  results  for  Wyoming,  and 
not  one  single  disadvantage.  That  is  the  most  splendid 
vindication  of  its  introduction.  The  example  set  by 
Wyoming  was  followed  by  other  states.  Women  were 
given  full  parliamentary  suffrage  in  Colorado  in  1894,  in 
Utah  in  1895,  in  Idaho  in  1896.  Wromen  have  munici- 
pal suffrage  in  Kansas,  and  school  suffrage,  tax- 
paying  suffrage,  etc.,  in  a  number  of  other  states  in  th«* 
Union.  In  1899,  after  the  innovation  had  been  in  force 
in  Colorado  for  five  years,  the  legislature  decided  upon 
the  following  resolution,  by  45  against  3  votes : 

"Whereas,  equal  suffrage  has  been  in  operation  in 
Colorado  for  five  years,  during  which  time  women 
have  exercised  the  privilege  as  generally  as  men,  with 
the  result  that  better  candidates  have  been  selected  for 
office,  methods  of  election  have  been  purified,  the  char- 
acter of  legislation  improved,  civic  intelligence  in- 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  291 

creased  and  womanhood  developed  to  greater  useful- 
ness by  political  responsibility;  therefore, 

Resolved,  by  the  House  of  Representatives,  the  Sen- 
ate concurring,  that,  in  view  of  these  results,  the  en- 
franchisement of  women  in  every  State  and  Territory 
of  the  American  Union  is  hereby  recommended  as  a 
measure  tending  to  the  advancement  of  a  higher  and 
better  social  order." 

In  a  number  of  states  the  legislatures  have  passed 
woman  suffrage  bills,  but  these  decisions  were  annulled 
by  the  vote  of  the  people.  This  was  the  case  in  Kansas, 
Oregon,  Nebraska,  Indiana,  and  Oklahoma.  In  Kansas 
and  Oklahoma  this  proceeding  has  been  twice  repeated, 
and  in  Oregon  even  three  times.  The  noteworthy  fact  is 
that  each  time  the  majorities  against  the  political  emanci- 
pation of  women  became  smaller.* 

"The  municipal  rights  obtained  by  women  are  very  va- 
ried, but,  taken  all  in  all,  do  not  amount  to  much.  As  a 
matter  of  course,  women  enjoy  the  full  municipal  rights 
of  citizenship  in  those  four  states  in  which  they  have 
been  given  national  suffrage.  But  only  one  other  state, 
Kansas,  has  given  women  municipal  suffrage,  which  also 
includes  school  and  tax-paying  suffrage  and  makes  them 
eligible  to  school  boards.  A  limited  municipal  suffrage, 
founded  upon  an  educational  qualification,  has  been  ex- 
ercised by  the  women  of  Michigan  since  1893.  Louisi- 
ana, Montana,  Iowa,  and  New  York  give  women  the 
right  to  vote  on  municipal  questions  of  taxation.  The 
women  have  not  obtained  as  much  influence  in  the  gen- 
eral administration  of  municipal  affairs  as  they  have  in 
regard  to  the  administration  of  schools.  They  have 
school  suffrage  and  are  eligible  to  school  boards  in  the 
following  states:  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Dela- 
ware, Ohio,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  North  and 
South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Montana,  Arizona,  Oregon 
and  Washington.  In  Kentucky  and  Oklahoma  they  have 
school  suffrage,  but  are  not  eligible  to  office ;  in  Ken- 


*At  present  suffrage  amendments  are  pending  in  Washington  and 
Oklahoma.     (Tr.) 


292  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

tucky  the  school  suffrage  is  limited  by  certain  restric- 
tions. In  Maine,  Rhode  Island,  Pennsylvania,  Louisi- 
ana, Iowa  and  California,  women  are  eligible  to  school 
boards,  but  only  to  certain  offices."* 

In  New  Zealand,  women  have  had  full  parliamentary 
suffrage  since  1893.  They  have  actively  participated  in 
the  parliamentary  elections,  more  actively  than  the  men, 
but  they  are  not  eligible  to  office.  Only  men  may  be 
elected.  In  1893,  of  139,915  women  of  voting  age  no 
less  than  109,461  registered ;  785  for  each  1000 ;  90,290 — 
645  for  each  1000 — took  part  in  the  elections.  In  1896 
108,783  (68  per  cent.)  of  the  women  voted;  in  1902, 
138,565  J  ^  1905,  175,046. 

In  Tasmania,  women  were  given  municipal  suffrage  in 
1884  and  national  suffrage  in  1903.  In  South  Australia, 
women  have  had  national  suffrage  since  1895,  in  West 
Australia  since  1900,  in  New  South  Wales  since  1902,  in 
Queensland  since  1905,  in  Victoria  since  1908.  Feder- 
ated Australia  introduced  parliamentary  woman's  suf- 
frage in  1902.  The  parliamentary  suffrage  implies  the 
eligibility  of  women  to  parliament,  but  until  now  no 
woman  has  been  elected.  Women  who  are  of  age  may 
vote  for  members  of  parliament  and  be  voted  for  on  the 
same  terms  as  men.  The  municipal  administration  is  less 
democratic.  The  right  of  participation  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  municipal  affairs  is  connected  with  military 
service.  Since  1889,  tax-paying  women  are  eligible  to 
the  charity-boards  of  town  and  rural  communities.  They 
may  also  be  elected  as  directors  of  charitable  institu- 
tions and  members  of  school  boards. 

The  grand  general  strike  of  October,  1905,  and  the 
victory  of  the  Russian  revolution  made  possible  the  res- 
toration of  the  constitution  in  Finland.  The  working 
class,  by  bringing  pressure  to  bear  upon  the  National 
Diet,  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  passage  of  a  law  that 
provided  for  the  introduction  of  universal  suffrage,  in- 
cluding the  women.  Only  such  persons  were  excluded 
who  received  aid  from  public  funds,  or  who  owed  their 
personal  tax  to  the  state,  50  cents  for  men  and  25  cents 

*Clara  Zetkin — Woman  Suffrage.    Berlin,  1907. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  293 

for  women.     In  1907,  19  women,  and  in  1908,  25  women 
were  elected  to  the  parliament  of  Finland. 

In  Norway,  women  participate  in  the  adminstration  of 
schools  since  1889.  In  cities,  the  city  councils  may  ap- 
point them  to  school  boards,  and  women  having  chil- 
dren of  school  age  take  part  in  the  election  of  school  in- 
spectors. In  the  rural  districts  all  who  pay  school  taxes, 
regardless  of  sex,  are  entitled  to  take  part  in  the  school 
meetings  of  the  communities.  Women  may  hold  the  of- 
fice of  school  inspector.  Gradually  women  were  given  a 
voice  in  other  municipal  matters  also.  In  1901,  municipal 
suffrage  was  extended  to  all  Norwegian  women  who 
had  attained  their  twenty-fifth  year,  who  were  Norwe- 
gian citizens,  having  been  in  the  country  at  least  five 
years,  and  who  paid  taxes  on  an  income  of  at  least  300 
crowns,  in  the  rural  districts,  and  400  crowns  in  the 
cities,  or  whose  husbands  paid  the  required  amount  of 
taxes.  Women  answering-  these  requirements  were  also 
made  eligible  to  municipal  offices.  By  this  law  200,000 
women  were  enfranchised,  30,000  of  them  in  Christiania 
alone.  During  the  first  election  in  which  the  women  par- 
ticipated, 90  women  were  elected  as  members  of  town 
and  city  councils,  and  160  as  alternates.  In  Christiana,  6 
women  councillors  and  one  alternate  were  elected.  On 
July  i,  1907,  the  Norwegian  women  were  given  parlia- 
mentary suffrage,  but  not  upon  the  same  terms  as  men. 
Parliamentary  suffrage  was  extended  to  women  on  the 
same  terms  on  which  they  had  been  given  municipal  suf- 
frage; 250,000  proletarian  women  still  remain  excluded 
from  political  rights. 

In  Sweden,  unmarried  women  take  part  in  municipal 
elections  since  1862,  on  the  same  terms  as  men;  that  is, 
they  must  be  of  age  and  must  pay  taxes  on  an  income  of 
at  least  140  dollars.  In  1887  only  4000  women  among 
62,000  voted.  At  first,  women  were  not  eligible  to  any 
municipal  office,  but  in  1889  a  law  was  enacted  which  de- 
clared them  eligible  to  school  boards  and  boards  of  char- 
ity. In  February,  1909,  Swedish  women  were  declared 
eligible  to  all  town  and  city  councils.  In  1902  parliamen- 


294  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

tary  woman  suffrage  was  rejected  by  the  lower  house  by 
114  against  64  votes;  in  1905  by  109  against  88  votes. 

In  Denmark,  after  many  years  of  agitation,  women 
were  given  municipal  suffrage  in  April,  1908,  and  were 
also  made  eligible  to  municipal  offices.  All  those  women 
are  enfranchised  who  have  attained  their  twenty-fifth 
year  and  who  have  an  annual  income  of  at  least  225  dol- 
lars in  the  cities  (less  in  rural  districts),  or  whose  hus- 
bands pay  the  required  amount  of  taxes.  Moreover,  ser- 
vant girls  are  enfranchised,  in  whose  case  board  and 
lodging  are  added  to  the  wages  they  receive.  During 
the  first  election  in  which  women  participated,  which 
took  place  in  1909,  seven  women  were  elected  to  the  city 
council  of  Copenhagen.  In  Iceland,  women  have  munici- 
pal suffrage  and  are  eligible  to  municipal  offices  since 
1907. 

The  struggle  for  woman  suffrage  in  England  has  a 
considerable  history.  According  to  an  old  law,  in  the 
mediaeval  ages,  ladies  of  the  manors  had  the  right  of  suf- 
frage and  also  exercised  judicial  power.  In  the  course  of 
time  they  were  deprived  of  these  rights.  In  the  election 
reform  acts  of  1832,  the  word  "person"  had  been  em- 
ployed, which  includes  members  of  both  sexes.  Yet  the 
law  was  construed  not  to  refer  to  women,  and  they  were 
barred  from  voting  wherever  they  made  an  attempt  to  do 
so.  In  the  election  reform  bill  of  1867,  the  word  "person" 
had  been  replaced  by  the  word  "man."  John  Stuart  Mill 
moved  to  reintroduce  the  word  "person"  instead  of 
"man,"  explicitly  stating  as  the  object  of  his  motion  that 
thereby  women  would  be  given  the  suffrage  on  the  same 
terms  as  men.  The  motion  was  voted  down  by  194 
against  73  votes.  Sixteen  years  later,  in  1883,  anothei 
attempt  was  made  in  the  house  of  commons  to  introduce 
woman  suffrage.  The  bill  was  rejected  by  a  majority  of 
only  16  votes.  Another  attempt  failed  in  1884,  when  a 
much  larger  membership  of  the  house  voted  down  a  suf- 
frage bill  by  a  majority  of  136  votes.  But  the  minority 
were  not  discouraged.  In  1886  they  succeeded  in  having 
a  bill  providing  for  the  introduction  of  parliamentary 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  295 

woman  suffrage  passed  in  two  readings.    The  dissolving 
of  parliament  prevented  a  final  decision. 

On  November  29,  1888,  Lord  Salisbury  delivered  an 
address  in  Edinburgh,  in  which  he  said,  among  other 
things:  "I  sincerely  hope  that  the  day  may  not  be  dis- 
tant when  women  will  participate  in  parliamentary  elec- 
tions and  will  help  to  determine  the  course  of  the  gov- 
ernment." Alfred  Russell  Wallace,  the  well-known  sci- 
entist and  follower  of  Darwin,  expressed  himself  upon 
the  same  question  in  the  following  manner :  "When  men 
and  women  shall  be  free  to  follow  their  best  impulses, 
when  no  human  being  shall  be  hampered  by  unnatural 
restrictions  owing  to  the  chance  of  sex,  when  public  opin- 
ion will  be  controlled  by  the  wisest  and  best  and  will  be 
systematically  impressed  upon  the  young,  then  we  will 
find  that  a  system  of  human  selection  will  manifest  itself 
that  will  result  in  a  transformed  humanity.  As  long  as 
women  are  compelled  to  regard  marriage  as  a  means 
whereby  they  may  escape  poverty  and  neglect,  they  are 
and  remain  at  a  disadvantage  compared  to  men.  There- 
fore the  first  step  in  the  emancipation  of  women  is  to  re- 
move all  the  restrictions  which  prevent  them  from  com- 
peting with  men  in  all  branches  of  industry  and  in  all  oc- 
cupations. But  we  must  advance  beyond  this  point  and 
permit  women  to  exercise  their  political  rights.  Many  of 
the  restrictions  from  which  women  have  hitherto  suf- 
fered would  have  been  spared  them  if  they  had  had  a  di- 
rect representation  in  parliament." 

On  April  27,  1892,  the  second  reading  of  a  bill  by  Sir 
A.  Rollit  was  again  rejected  by  175  against  152  votes. 
On  February  3,  1897,  the  house  of  commons  passed  a 
suffrage  bill,  but,  owing  to  various  manoeuvres  of  the  op- 
ponents, the  bill  did  not  come  up  for  the  third  reading. 
In  1904  the  same  scene  was  re-enacted.  Of  the  members 
of  parliament  elected  to  the  house  of  commons  in  1906,  a 
large  majority  had  declared  themselves  in  favor  of  wom- 
an suffrage  prior  to  their  election.  On  June  21,  1908,  a 
grand  demonstration  was  held  in  Hyde  Park.  On  Feb- 
ruary 28,  a  bill  providing  that  women  should  be  given 


296  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

parliamentary  suffrage  on  the  same  terms  as  men,  had 
been  passed  by  271  against  92  votes.* 

In  regard  to  municipal  administration,  woman  suf- 
frage in  Great  Britain  is  constantly  expanding.  In  the 
parish  councils  tax-paying  women  have  a  voice  and 
vote  as  well  as  men.  Since  1899,  women  in  England  have 
the  right  to  vote  for  town,  district  and  county  councils. 
In  the  rural  districts  all  proprietors  and  lodgers — includ- 
ing the  female  ones — who  reside  in  the  parish  or  district 
are  entitled  to  vote.  All  inhabitants  who  are  of  age  ma> 
be  elected  to  the  above-named  bodies,  regardless  of  sex. 
Women  vote  for  members  of  school  boards,  and,  since 
1870,  are  eligible  to  same  on  the  same  terms  as  men.  But 
in  1903  the  reactionary  English  school  law  las  deprived 
women  of  the  right  of  being  elected  to  the  school  board 
in  the  county  of  London.  Since  1869  independent  and 
unmarried  women  have  the  right  to  vote  for  the  privy 
councils.  Two  laws  enacted  in  1907  made  unmarried 
women  in  England  and  Scotland  eligible  to  district  and 
county  councils.  But  a  woman  who  may  be  elected  as 
chairman  of  such  a  council,  shall  thereby  not  hold  the 
office  of  justice  of  peace  that  is  connected  with  it.  Wom- 
en are  also  eligible  to  parish  councils  and  as  overseers  of 
the  poor.  The  first  woman  mayor  was  elected  in  Aide- 
burgh  on  November  9,  1908.  In  1908  there  were  1162 
women  on  English  boards  of  charity  and  615  women  on 
school  boards.  In  Ireland,  tax-paying  women  have  had 
municipal  suffrage  since  1887,  and  since  1896  they  may 
vote  for  members  of  boards  of  charity  and  be  elected  to 
asme.  In  the  Birtish  colony  of  North  America,  most  of 
the  provinces  have  introduced  municipal  woman  suf- 
frage on  similar  terms  as  in  England.  In  the  African 
colonies  of  England,  municipal  woman  suffrage  has  like- 
wise been  introduced. 

In  France  the  first  slight  progress  was  brought  about 
by  a  law  enacted  on  February  27,  1880.  By  this  law  a 

*A  similar  bill,  known  as  the  "conciliation  bill,"  drawn  up  by  a 
committee  consisting  of  members  of  all  parties,  passed  its  second 
reading  in  July  1910  by  299  against  189  votes.  Prime  Minister  As- 
quith  prevented  the  third  reading  and  final  vote  upon  the  bill  during 
that  session  of  Parliament.  (Tr.) 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  297 

school  board  was  created  consisting  of  women  school 
principals,  school  inspectors,  and  inspectors  of  asylums. 
Another  law  of  January  23,  1898,  gave  women  engaged 
in  commerce  the  right  to  vote  for  members  of  courts  of 
trade,  and,  since  November  25,  1908,  women  may  be 
elected  as  members  of  courts  of  trade  themselves. 

In  Italy  women  may  vote  for  members  of  courts  of 
trade  and  be  elected  as  such  since  1893.  They  are  also 
eligible  to  boards  of  supervisors  of  hospitals,  orphan 
asylums,  foundling  asylums,  and  to  school  boards. 

In  Austria  women  belonging  to  the  class  of  great 
landowners  may  vote  for  members  of  the  Diet  and  the 
imperial  council,  either  personally  or  by  proxy.  Tax- 
paying  women,  over  24,  may  vote  for  town  and  city 
councillors ;  married  women  exercise  the  suffrage  indi- 
rectly through  their  husbands,  others  through  some 
other  authorized  agent.  All  the  women  belonging  to  the 
class  of  great  land-owners  have  the  right  to  vote  for 
members  of  the  Diet,  but,  with  the  exception  of  Lower 
Austria,  they  do  not  exercise  it  personally.  Only  in  the 
one  domain  referred  to,  the  law  of  1896  provides  that  the 
great  landowners,  regardless  of  sex,  must  cast  their  vote 
in  person.  Women  may  also  vote  for  members  of  courts 
of  trade,  but  may  not  be  elected  to  same. 

In  Germany  women  are  explicitly  excluded  from  vot-1 
ing  for  any  law-making  bodies.  In  some  parts  of  the 
country  women  may  vote  for  town-councillors.  In  no 
city  or  rural  community  are  women  eligible  to  municipal 
offices.  In  the  cities  they  are  also  excluded  from  the 
right  to  vote  for  any  office.  The  exceptions  to  this  rule 
are  some  cities  in  the  Grand-duchy  of  Saxony-Weimar- 
Eisenach,  in  the  principalities  of  Schwarzburg-Rudol- 
stadt,  and  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  in  Bavaria,  and 
the  little  town  of  Travemuende,  in  Lubeck. 

In  the  Bavarian  cities  all  women  who  are  house-own- 
ers, and  in  the  cities  of  Saxony- Weimar  and  Schwarz- 
burg,  all  women  citizens  are  given  the  suffrage,  but  only 
in  Travemuende  are  they  permittel  to  exercise  it  in  per- 
son.* In  most  of  the  rural  communities  where  the  right 


'Political  Manual  for  Women.     Berlin,  1909. 


298  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

of  suffrage  depends  upon  a  property  or  tax-paying  quali- 
fication, women  are  included  in  this  right.  But  they 
must  vote  by  proxy  and  are  not  eligible  to  any  office 
themselves.  This  is  the  case  in  Prussia,  Brunswick, 
Schleswig-Holstein,  Saxony-Weimar,  Hamburg,  and 
Lubeck.  In  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  a  woman  may  ex- 
ercise the  suffrage  if  she  be  a  landowner  and  unmarried. 
When  she  becomes  married,  her  suffrage  devolves  upon 
her  husband.  In  those  states  in  which  municipal  suf- 
frage depends  upon  citizenship,  women  are  generally  ex- 
cluded. This  is  the  case  in  Wurtemberg,  in  the  Bavarian 
Palatinate,  in  Baden,  Hessia,  Oldenburg,  Anhalt,  Gotha, 
and  Reuss.  In  Saxony-Weimar-Eisenach,  Coburg, 
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  and  Schwarzburg-Sondershau- 
sen,  women  can  become  citizens  on  the  same  terms  as 
men,  and  they  have  the  suffrage,  not  limited  by  any 
property  qualification.  But  here,  too,  they  are  prohib- 
ited from  exercising  this  right  in  person. 

In  those  Prussian  districts  where  a  limited  form  of 
woman  suffrage  exists,  the  enfranchised  women  partici- 
pate directly  or  indirectly  in  the  elections  for  members  of 
the  dietines.  In  the  electoral  groups  of  great  landown 
ers  and  the  representatives  of  mining  and  manufacturing 
establishments,  the  women  vote  for  members  of  the 
dietines  directly ;  but  in  the  rural  communities  they  vote 
indirectly,  since  here  the  town  council  does  not  elect  the 
representatives  themselves,  but  only  their  electors.  As 
the  local  dietines  elect  representatives  to  the  provincial 
diets,  the  small  number  of  enfranchised  women  are  en- 
abled to  exert  a  very  modest  influence  on  the  administra- 
tion of  the  provinces. 

During  recent  years  women  have  been  admitted  to 
boards  of  charity,  and  have  been  made  overseers  of  the 
poor  and  of  orphan  asylums  in  growing  numbers  and 
with  marked  success.  (Bavaria  constitutes  the  only  ex- 
ception.) In  some  cities  (in  Prussia,  Baden,  Wurtem- 
berg, Bavaria  and  Saxony),  they  have  also  been  admit- 
ted to  school  boards,  and  in  one  city  (Mannheim),  they 
have  been  made  members  of  a  commission  for  the  inspec- 
tion of  dwellings.  Insurance  against  sickness  is  the  only 
public  institution  in  connection  with  which  women  may 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  299 

vote  and  be  voted  for.    They  remain  excluded  from  vot- 
ing for  members  of  courts  of  trade. 

The  above-quoted  instances  show  that  suffrage  in  Ger- 
many and  Austria  is  determined,  almost  without  excep- 
tion, not  by  the  person,  but  by  property.  Politically,  hu- 
man beings  are  mere  ciphers  if  they  have  no  money  and 
no  possesions.  Neither  intellect  nor  ability,  but  prop- 
erty is  the  determining  factor.  It  is  very  instructive  to 
note  this  fact  in  regard  to  the  morality  and  justice  of  the 
present  state. 

We  see  that  a  number  of  exceptions  have  already  been 
made  to  the  theory  that  women  are  in  the  same  class 
with  minors  and  that  the  franchise  must  accordingly  be 
withheld  from  them.  And  yet  people  vehemently  op- 
pose the  endeavor  to  give  women  full  political  equality. 
Even  progressive  people  argue  that  it  would  be  danger- 
ous to  enfranchise  women  because  they  are  conservative 
by  nature  and  are  susceptible  to  religious  prejudices. 
But  these  arguments  are  true  to  some  extent  only,  so 
long  as  women  are  maintained  in  ignorance.  Our  ob- 
ject must  therefore  be  to  educate  them  and  to  teach  them 
where  their  true  interest  lies.  Incidentally  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  religious  influence  on  elections  has  been 
overestimated.  The  ultramontane  agitation  was  so  suc- 
cessful in  Germany  only  because  it  wisely  combined  the 
religious  interests  with  social  interests.  For  a  long  time 
the  ultramontane  chaplains  vied  with  the  Socialists  in  re- 
vealing social  deterioration.  It  was  this  that  caused 
them  to  become  so  influential  with  the  masses.  But  with 
the  end  of  the  struggle  between  church  and  state  this  in- 
fluence gradually  declines.  The  clergy  are  obliged  to 
abandon  their  struggle  against  the  power  of  the  state ;  ac 
the  same  time  the  increasing  class  differences  compel 
them  to  show  greater  consideration  for  the  Catholic 
bourgeoisie  and  the  Catholic  nobility  and  to  be  more 
reticent  in  regard  to  social  questions.  Thereby  they  lose 
their  influence  upon  workingmen,  especially  if  considera- 
tion for  the  ruling  classes  compels  them  to  faver  or  to 
tolerate  actions  and  laws  that  are  directed  against  the 
interests  of  the  working  class.  The  same  reasons  will 
eventually  also  destroy  the  influence  of  the  clergy  upon 


300  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

women.  When  women  learn  in  meetings,  or  from  news- 
papers, or  by  personal  experience,  where  their  true  inter- 
ests lie,  they  will  emancipate  themselves  from  clerical  in- 
fluence just  as  men.* 

In  Belgium,  where  ultramontanism  still  predominates 
among  large  circles  of  the  population,  a  number  of  the 
Catholic  clergy  favor  woman  suffrage  because  they  deem 
it  an  effective  weapon  against  Socialism.  In  Germany, 
too,  a  number  of  conservative  members  of  the  Diet  have 
declared  themselves  in  favor  of  the  woman  suffrage  bills 
introduced  by  Socialist  members  and  have  explained 
their  position  by  asserting  that  they  consider  woman 
suffrage  a  weapon  against  Socialism.  Undoubtedly  there 
is  some  truth  in  these  opinions,  taking  into  considera- 
tion the  present  political  ignorance  of  women  and  the 
strong  influence  exerted  over  them  by  the  clergy.  But 
still  this  is  no  reason  to  disfranchise  them.  There  are 
millions  of  workingmen,  too,  who  vote  for  candidates  ot 
bourgeois  and  religious  parties  against  their  own  class 
interest  and  thereby  prove  their  political  ignorance,  yet 
no  one  would  propose  to  disfranchise  them  for  this  rea- 
son. The  withholding  or  the  rape  of  the  franchise  is  not 
practiced  because  the  ignorance  of  the  masses — including 
the  ignorance  of  women — is  feared;  for  what  these 
masses  are,  the  ruling  classes  have  made  them.  It  is 


*That  this  danger  exists  the  clergy  themselves  have  soon  recog- 
nized. Since  the  woman  movement  has  grown  and  developed  even 
in  bourgeois  circles,  the  leaders  of  the  Catholic  party  recognized  that 
they  could  no  longer  oppose  it,  and  they  accordingly  completely 
reversed  their  attitude.  With  that  sublety  which  has  always  char- 
acterized the  servants  of  the  church,  they  favor  at  present  what  they 
opposed  until  quite  recently.  They  not  only  favor  higher  education 
for  women,  they  also  declare  themselves  in  favor  of  unrestricted 
right  of  assembly  and  organization  for  women.  Some  of  the  more 
far-sighted  even  support  woman  suffrage,  hoping  that  the  church 
may  derive  the  greatest  gain  from  the  introduction  of  same.  In  the 
same  way  the  industrial  organization  of  women  is  supported  by  the 
Catholic  clergy,  even  the  organization  of  servant  girls.  But  all  these 
social  endeavors  are  fostered,  not  from  an  innate  sense  of  justice, 
but  to  prevent  the,  women  from  flocking  to  the  camp  of  religious  and 
political  opponents. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  301 

practiced  because  the  ruling  classes  fear  that  the  masses 
will  gradually  become  wise  and  pursue  their  own  course. 

Until  recently  the  various  German  states  were  so  re- 
actionary that  they  even  withheld  from  women  the  right 
of  political  organization.  In  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Bruns 
wick,  and  a  number  of  other  German  states,  they  were 
not  permitted  to  form  political  clubs.  In  Prussia  the;y 
were  not  even  permitted  to  participate  in  entertainments 
arranged  by  political  clubs,  as  was  distinctly  set  down  by 
the  supreme  court  in  1901.  The  rector  of  the  Berlin 
University  even  went  so  far  as  to  forbid  a  woman  to  lec- 
ture before  a  social  science  club  of  students.  In  the 
same  year  the  police  authorities  of  Brunswick  forbade 
women  to  take  part  in  the  proceedings  of  the  social  con- 
gress of  Evangelists.  In  1902  the  Prussian  secretary  of 
state  condescended  to  give  women  the  permission  to  at- 
tend the  meetings  of  political  clubs,  but  under  the  con- 
dition that  they  had  to  take  their  seats  in  a  part  of  the 
hall  specially  set  aside  for  them,  like  the  Jewish  women 
in  their  synagogues.  Nothing  could  have  better  charac- 
terized the  pettiness  of  our  conditions.  As  late  as  Febru- 
ary, 1904,  Pasadowsky  solemnly  declared  in  the  Diet: 
"Women  shall  keep  their  hands  off  politics."  But 
eventually  this  state  of  affairs  became  unbearable  even 
to  the  bourgeois  parties.  The  new  national  law  on  as- 
sembly and  organization  of  April  19,  1908,  brought  the 
only  marked  improvement  by  establishing  equal  rights  of 
women  in  regard  to  political  organization  and  public  as- 
sembly. 

The  right  to  vote  must  of  course  be  combined  with  the 
right  to  be  elected  to  office.  We  hear  the  cry:  "How 
ridiculous  it  would  be  to  behold  a  woman  on  the  plat- 
form of  the  Diet!"  Yet  there  are  other  states  where 
women  have  ascended  to  the  platforms  of  parliaments, 
and  we,  too,  have  long  since  become  accustomed  to  sec 
women  on  platforms  in  their  meetings  and  conventions. 
In  North  America  women  appear  on  the  pulpit  and  in  the 
jury-box;  why  not  on  the  platform  of  the  Diet?  The 
first  woman  to  be  elected  to  the  Diet  will  know  how  to 
impress  the  other  members.  When  the  first  workingmen 
were  elected  to  the  Diet  they,  too,  were  the  objects,  of 


302  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

cheap  wit,  and  it  was  asserted  that  workingmen  would 
soon  recognize  the  folly  of  electing  men  of  their  type. 
But  the  working-class  representatives  quickly  succeeded 
in  winning  respect,  and  at  present  their  opponents  fear 
that  there  may  be  too  many  of  them.  Frivolous  jesters 
exclaim:  "But  picture  a  pregnant  woman  on  the  plat- 
form of  the  Diet;  how  shocking!"  Yet  the  same  gentle- 
men consider  it  quite  proper  that  pregnant  women 
should  be  employed  at  occupations  which  shockingly  de- 
grade their  womanly  dignity  and  decency  and  undermine 
their  health.  That  man  is  a  wretch,  indeed,  who  dares  to 
ridicule  a  pregnant  woman.  The  very  thought  that  his 
mother  was  in  the  same  condition  before  she  gave  him 
birth  must  drive  the  blood  to  his  cheeks  in  shame,  and 
the  other  thought,  that  his  wife's  being  in  the  same  con- 
dition may  mean  the  fulfillment  of  his  fondest  hopes, 
must  silence  him.* 

The  woman  who  gives  birth  to  children  is  serving  the 
community  at  least  as  well  as  the  man  who  risks  his  life 
in  defence  of  the  country.  For  she  gives  birth  to  and 
educates  the  future  soldiers,  far  too  many  of  whom  must 
sacrifice  their  lives  on  the  battlefield.  Moreover,  every 


*"Half  of  the  women  members  of  Parliament  in  Finland  are  wives 
and  mothers.  Three  of  the  Socialist  married  women  members  be- 
came mothers  during  their  parliamentary  activity  without  any  other 
disturbing  results  except  that  they  remained  away  from  the  sessions 
for  a  few  weeks.  Their  pregnant  condition  was  regarded  as  some- 
thing natural  that  was  neither  wonderful  nor  noteworthy.  It  may 
rather  be  said  that  this  factor  was  of  educational  value  to  the  assem- 
bly. In  regard  to  the  parliamentary  activity  of  these  women  mem- 
bers it  should  be  noted  that  their  parties  elected  them  to  the  special 
committees  also,  which  proves  that  they  were  convinced  of  their  abil- 
ity. The  committee  on  labor  where  the  laws  for  workingmen's  pro- 
tection, workingmen's  insurance,  and  the  new  trade  laws  were  drawn 
up,  consisted  of  twelve  men  and  four  women,  and  three  women  had 
been  chosen  as  alternates.  The  legislative  and  constitutional  com- 
mittees each  had  two  women  members,  and  for  each  there  was  one 
woman  alternate,  and  the  women  have  ably  maintained  their  place  in 
these  committees." — Miss  Hilda  Paerssinen,  member  of  the  diet  of 
Finland — "Woman  Suffrage  and  the  Participation  of  Women  in  the 
Parliamentary  Work  of  Finland," — Documents  of  Progress.  July, 
1909. 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  303 

woman  risks  her  life  in  becoming  a  mother.  All  our 
mothers  have  faced  death  in  giving  us  life,  and  many  of 
them  have  perished.  In  Prussia,  for  instance,  the  num- 
ber of  deaths  in  child-birth — including  the  victims  of  pu- 
erperal fever — by  far  exceeds  the  number  of  deaths  from 
typhoid.  During  1905  and  1906  0.73  and  0.62  per  cent,  of 
typhoid  patients  died.  But  among  10,000  women  2.13  and 
1.97  per  cent,  died  in  child-birth.  "How  would  conditions 
have  developed,"  Professor  Herff  rightly  remarks,  "if 
men  were  subjected  to  these  sufferings  to  the  same  ex- 
tent? Would  not  the  utmost  measures  be  resorted  to?5'* 
The  number  of  women  who  die  in  child-birth,  or 
are  left  sickly  as  a  result  of  same,  is  far  greater  than  the 
number  of  men  who  die  or  are  wounded  on  the  battle- 
field. From  1816  to  1876,  in  Prussia  alone,  no  less  than 
321,791  women  fell  victims  of  puerperal  fever;  that  is  an 
annual  average  of  5363.  In  England,  from  1847  to  1901, 
213,533  women  died  in  child-birth,  and  still,  notwithstand- 
ing all  hygienic  measures,  no  less  than  4000  die  an- 
nually.** 

That  is  a  far  greater  number  than  the  number  of  men 
killed  in  the  various  wars  during  the  same  time.  To  this 
tremendous  number  of  women  who  die  in  child-birth 
must  furthermore  be  added  the  still  greater  number  of 
those  who  become  sickly  as  a  result  of  child-birth  and  die 
young.***  This  is  another  reason  why  woman  is  entitled 
to  full  equality  with  man.  Let  these  facts  be  especially 
noted  by  those  persons  who  advance  the  military  service 
of  men  as  an  argument  against  the  equal  rights  of  women. 
Moreover,  our  military  institutions  enable  a  great  many 
men  to  escape  the  performance  of  this  duty. 

All  these  superficial  objections  to  the  public  activity  of 
women  would  be  impossible  if  the  relation  of  the  sexes 

*Professor  Dr.  Otto  v.  Herff — The  struggle  against  puerperal 
fever.  Leipsig,  1908. 

**W.  Williams — Deaths  in  Child-bed.    London,  1904. 

***"For  every  woman  who  dies  in  child-birth  we  must  assume  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  who  are  more  or  less  seriously  infected  with  result- 
ing diseases  of  the  abdominal  organs  and  general  debility  from  which 
they  frequently  suffer  for  the  remainder  of  their  lives."  Dr.  Mrs. 
H.  B.  Adams— The  Book  of  Woman.  Stuttgart,  1894. 


304  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

was  natural,  instead  of  there  being  an  artificially  stimu- 
lated antagonism  between  them.  From  their  early  child- 
hood on  the  sexes  are  separated  in  their  education  and 
their  social  intercourse.  It  is  especially  the  antagonism 
we  owe  to  Christianity  that  keeps  the  sexes  apart  and 
maintains  one  in  ignorance  about  the  other,  whereby  free 
social  intercourse,  mutual  confidence  and  the  ability  to 
supplement  each  other's  traits  of  character  are  prevented. 
One  of  the  first  and  most  important  tasks  of  a  ration- 
ally organized  society  must  be  to  remove  this  detrimental 
discord  and  to  restore  the  rights  of  nature.  We  begin 
by  making  even  the  little  children  in  school  unnatural, 
firstly,  by  separating  the  sexes,  and  secondly,  by  failing 
to  instruct  our  children  as  to  the  sex  nature  of  human 
beings.  In  every  fairly  good  school  natural  history  Is 
being  taught  at  present.  The  child  learns  that  birds  lay 
eggs  and  hatch  them.  He  learns  when  birds  mate  and 
that  both  the  male  and  female  bird  build  the  nest,  hatch 
the  eggs  and  feed  the  young.  He  also  learns  that  mam- 
mals bring  forth  their  young  alive.  He  hears  of  the 
mating  season  and 'that  the  male  animals  fight  one  an- 
other for  possession  of  the  females.  Perhaps  he  even 
learns  how  many  young  one  or  another  species  of  animal 
usually  brings  forth  and  how  long  the  female  is  preg- 
nant. But  profoundest  secrecy  is  maintained  in  regard  to 
the  origin  and  development  of  the  human  being.  When 
the  child  seeks  to  satisfy  its  natural  curiosity  by  ques- 
tioning his  parents,  especially  his  mother — he  rarely  ven- 
tures to  question  the  teacher — he  is  told  the  most  ridicu- 
lous fairy  tales  that  cannot  satisfy  his  thirst  for  knowl- 
edge and  that  must  exert  an  all  the  more  harmful  influ- 
ence when,  some  day,  he  nevertheless  learns  the  true  na- 
ture of  his  origin.  There  are  few  children  who  have  not 
learned  of  it  by  the  time  they  are  twelve  years  old.  In 
every  small  town,  and  especially  in  the  country,  even 
very  young  children  have  occasion  to  observe  the  pair- 
ing  of  poultry  and  domestic  animals  at  close  range  in  the 
yards,  in  the  streets  and  on  pasture.  They  hear  that  the 
pairing  of  domestic  animals  and  the  birth  of  the  young  is» 
discussed  without  a  sense  of  shame  by  their  parents,  their 
eider  brothers  and  sisters  and  the  servants.  All  this 


Woman  at  the  Present  Day  305 

causes  the  child  to  doubt  the  truth  of  what  his  parents 
told  him  in  regard  to  his  own  coming  into  the  world. 
Finally  the  child  learns  the  truth,  but  not  in  the  manner 
in  which  he  ought  to  learn  it  if  his  education  were  a  nat- 
ural and  rational  one.  The  fact  that  the  child  keeps  his 
knowledge  a  secret  leads  to  an  estrangement  between  him 
and  his  parents,  especially  between  him  and  his  mother. 
The  parents  have  accomplished  the  opposite  of  what  they 
sought  to  accomplish  in  their  ignorance  and  short-sight- 
edness. Those  who  recall  their  own  childhood  and  the 
childhood  of  their  playmates  know,  to  what  this  may  lead. 

An  American  woman*  tells  us  that  in  order  to  satis- 
factorily answer  the  constant  questions  of  her  eight-year- 
old  son  as  to  his  origin,  and  because  she  did  not  wish  to 
tell  him  fairy  tales,  she  revealed  to  him  the  truth  about 
his  birth.  The  child,  she  says,  listened  to  her  with  ut- 
most attention,  and  from  the  day  upon  which  he  had 
learned  how  much  suffering  he  caused  his  mother,  he  had 
treated  her  with  unwonted  tenderness  and  respect  and 
had  also  transferred  these  feelings  to  other  women. 
The  writer  upholds  the  correct, view  that  only  by  means 
of  a  natural  education  men  can  be  led  to  treat  women 
with  more  respect  and  self-control.  Every  unprejudiced 
person  is  bound  to  agree  with  her. 

Whatever  starting-point  one  may  choose  in  the  criti- 
cism of  present-day  conditions,  one  is  bound  always  to 
reiterate  the  following :  A  thorough  reorgainzation  of  our 
social  conditions,  and  thereby  a  thorough  transformation 
in  the  relation  of  the  sexes,  is  needful.  Woman,  in  order 
to  attain  her  aim  more  quickly,  must  look  about  for  allies, 
and  she  naturally  finds  such  allies  in  the  proletarian 
movement.  The  class-conscious  proletariat  has  long 
since  commenced  to  storm  the  fortress  of  the  state  that  is 
founded  on  class  rule,  which  includes  the  rule  of  one  sex 
over  the  other.  The  fortress  must  be  surrounded  on  all 
sides,  and,  by  arms  of  all  calibers,  it  must  be  forced  to 
surrender.  The  beleaguering  army  finds  its  officers  and 
suitable  arms  on  all  sides.  The  social  sciences,  the  nat- 
ural sciences,  historical  research,  pedagogics,  hygiene  and 

^Womanhood,  Its  Sanctities  and  Fidelities  by  Isabella  Beecher 
Hooker.  New  York,  1874.  Lee,  Shepard  &  Dillingham. 


306  The  Legal  Status  of  Women 

statistics  furnish  the  movement  with  arms  and  munition. 
Philosophy  comes  forward,  too,  and,  in  Mainlaender's 
''Philosophy  of  Deliverance,"  proclaims  the  early  realiza- 
tion of  the  "ideal  state." 

The  conquest  of  the  class-state  and  its  transformation 
is  made  easier  by  dissension  in  the  ranks  of  its  defend- 
ers, who,  notwithstanding  their  community  of  interests 
against  the  common  enemy,  fight  one  another  in  the 
struggle  for  the  spoils.  The  interest  of  one  group  is  op- 
posed to  the  interest  of  another.  Another  point  in  our 
favor  is  the  growing  mutiny  in  the  ranks  of  the  enemy. 
To  a  great  extent  their  soldiers  are  blood  of  our  blood 
and  flesh  of  our  flesh,  but,  owing  to  ignorance,  they,  until 
now,  fought  against  us  and  against  themselves.  More 
and  more  of  these  join  our  ranks.  We  are,  furthermore, 
helped  by  the  desertion  of  honest  men  of  intellect,  who 
were  hostile  to  us  at  first,  but  whose  superior  knowledge 
and  profound  insight  impels  them  to  rise  above  their 
narrow  class  interest,  to  follow  their  ideal  desire  for 
justice,  and  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the  masses  that  are 
longing  for  liberation. 

Many  still  fail  to  recognize  that  state  and  society  are 
already  in  a  state  of  decay.  Therefore  an  exposition  of 
this  subject  also  becomes  necessary. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
The  Glass -State  and  the  Modern  Proletariat. 

i. — Our  Public  Life. 

The  development  of  society  has  been  a  very  rapid  one 
in  all  civilized  states  of  the  world  during  recent  decades, 
and  any  new  achievement  in  any  realm  of  human  activity 
still  hastens  this  development.  Thereby  our  social  con- 
ditions have  been  put  into  a  state  of  unrest,  fermentation 
and  dissolution,  the  like  of  which  had  never  been  known 
before.  The  feeling  of  security  of  the  ruling  classes  has 
been  shaken,  and  the  institutions  are  losing  their  old  sta- 
bility whereby  they  might  resist  the  attacks  that  are  made 
upon  them  from  all  sides.  A  feeling  of  discomfort,  inse- 
curity and  dissatisfaction  has  taken  possession  of  all 
strata  of  society,  the  highest  as  well  as  the  lowest.  The 
tremendous  exertions  made  by  the  ruling  classes  to  re> 
move  this  unbearable  state  of  affairs  by  patching  and 
mending  the  body  social,  prove  useless  because  they  are 
insufficient.  They  only  increase  their  sense  of  insecurity 
and  heighten  their  discomfort  and  unrest.  They  have 
scarcely  inserted  one  beam  into  the  dilapidated  structure 
in  the  form  of  some  legislation,  when  they  discover  a 
dozen  other  decayed  spots  that  require  repairs  stih  more 
urgently.  At  the  same  time  they  have  constant  quarrels 
and  serious  differences  of  opinion  among  themselves.  A 
measure  introduced  by  one  party  to  appease  the  growing 
dissatisfaction  of  the  masses,  is  condemned  by  the  other 
party  as  an  unpardonable  weakness  and  leniency  that  is 
bound  to  stimulate  a  desire  for  still  greater  concessions. 
That  is  clearly  seen  by  the  endless  discussions  in  all  par- 
liaments, whereby  new  laws  and  institutions  are  con- 
stantly being  introduced  without  attaining  any  state  of 
rest  and  satisfaction.  Among  the  ruling  classes  them- 
selves certain  extreme  differences  exist,  some  of  which 


308      The  Class-State  and  the  Modern  Proletariat 

are  insurmountable,  and  these  still  intensify  the  social 
conflict. 

The  governments — and  not  only  those  in  Germany — 
sway  to  and  fro  like  reeds  shaken  by  the  wind.  They 
must  lean  on  something,  for  they  cannot  exist  without  a 
support,  and  so  they  incline  first  toward  one  side  and 
then  toward  another.  There  is  hardly  a  progressive 
state  in  Europe  in  which  the  government  can  count  upon 
a  permanent  majority  in  parliament.  Social  extremes 
break  up  the  majorities;  and  the  constant  fluctuations  of 
the  market,  especially  in  Germany,  undermine  the  last 
remnant  of  confidence  that  the  ruling  classes  still  placed 
in  themselves.  To-day  one  party  is  in  control  and  to- 
morrow another.  What  the  one  has  constructed  with 
much  difficulty  is  torn  down  by  the  other.  The  confu- 
sion increases,  the  dissatisfaction  becomes  more  lasting, 
the  struggles  multiply  and  wear  out  more  human  strength 
in  a  few  months  than  formerly  in  an  equal  number  of 
years.  Besides,  the  material  demands,  in  the  form  of  va- 
rious taxes,  are  constantly  increasing,  and  there  is  no 
limit  to  the  public  debts. 

The  modern  state  is  by  its  very  nature  a  class-state. 
We  have  seen  how  it  became  necessary  to  protect  private 
property  and  to  regulate,  by  means  of  laws  and  institu- 
tions, the  relations  of  the  proprietors  to  one  another  and 
to  the  non-possessors.  Whatever  forms  the  appropria- 
tion of  property  may  assume  in  the  course  of  historical 
development,  it  is  established  by  the  very  nature  of  pri- 
vate property  that  the  greatest  proprietors  are  the  most 
powerful  persons  in  the  state  and  shape  it  in  accordance 
with  their  interests.  It  is,  furthermore,  established  by 
the  nature  of  private  property  that  an  individual  can 
never  obtain  enough  of  same  and  employs  all  available 
means  in  order  to  increase  it.  He  therefore  endeavors  so 
to  shape  the  state  that  it  may  best  enable  him  to  attain 
his  ends.  Thereby  laws  and  institutions  of  the  state  nat- 
urally develop  into  class  laws  and  class  institutions.  But 
the  powe'rs  of  the  state,  and  all  who  are  interested  in 
maintaining  the  present  order,  would  not  be  able  to  up- 
hold it  long  against  the  mass  of  those  who  are  not  inter- 
ested in  its  maintenance,  if  this  mass  would  recognize  the 


The  State  and  Society  309 

true  nature  of  existing  conditions.  This  recognition  must 
therefore  be  prevented  at  any  cost.  The  masses  must  be 
maintained  in  ignorance  concerning  the  nature  of  existing 
conditions.  They  must  be  taught  that  the  present  order 
has  always  existed  and  will  always  continue  to  exist,  that 
seeking  to  overturn  it,  means  to  rebel  against  the  institu- 
tions of  God  himself.  That  is  why  religion  is  made  to 
serve  this  purpose.  The  more  ignorant  and  superstitious 
the  masses  are,  the  more  favorable  are  the  circum- 
stances to  the  ruling  classes.  To  maintain  them  in  igno- 
rance and  superstition  is  in  the  interest  of  the  state ;  thai 
is,  in  the  interest  of  those  classes  who  regard  the  state  as 
an  institution  to  protect  their  class  privileges.  These  are, 
besides  the  propertied  class,  the  hierarchy  of  church  and 
state,  who  all  unite  in  the  common  task  of  protecting  their 
interests. 

But,  with  the  endeavor  to  win  possessions  and  with 
the  increased  number  of  possessors,  the  general  status  of 
civilization  is  raised  to  a  higher  level.  The  circle  of 
those  increases  who  seek  to  participate  in  the  fruits  of 
progress  and  who  succeed  in  so  doing  to  a  certain  degree. 
A  new  class  arises  on  a  new  basis.  It  is  not  regarded  by 
the  ruling  class  as  being  entitled  to  equal  rights,  but  is 
prepared  to  venture  anything  in  order  to  attain  equality. 
Finally  new  class  struggles  arise  and  even  violent  revo- 
lutions, whereby  the  new  class  obtains  recognition  and 
power.  Especially  by  espousing  the  cause  of  the  mass  of 
the  oppressed  and  exploited,  it  attains  the  victory  with 
their  aid. 

But  as  soon  as  the  new  class  has  come  into  power  it 
unites  with  its  former  enemies  against  its  former  allies, 
and  after  some  time  class  struggles  begin  anew.  The 
new  ruling  class  has  meanwhile  imprinted  the  entire  body 
social  with  the  character  of  its  means  of  subsistance ;  but 
as  it  can  increase  its  power  and  its  possessions  only  by 
letting  a  part  of  .its  achievements  fall  to  the  share  of  the 
class  that  it  oppresses  and  exploits,  it  thereby  heightens 
the  ability  and  understanding  of  that  class.  By  so  doing, 
the  ruling  class  furnishes  the  oppressed  class  with  the 
weapons  that  shall  achieve  its  own  destruction.  The 


310      The  Class-State  and  the  Modern  Proletariat 

struggle  of  the  masses  now  becomes  directed  against  all 
class  rule,  in  whatever  form  it  may  exist. 

This  last  class  is  the  modern  proletariat,  and  its  histori- 
cal mission  will  be  not  only  to  achieve  its  own  liberation, 
but  also  the  liberation  of  all  who  are  oppressed,  which  in- 
cludes the  liberation  of  woman. 

The  nature  of  the  class  state  not  only  involves  the  po- 
litical oppression  of  the  exploited  classes,  it  also  involves 
that  they  are  made  to  bear  the  heaviest  burdens  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  state.  That  is  made  easy  when  the 
burdens  are  imposed  in  such  a  manner  that  their  true 
character  is  concealed.  It  is  obvious  that  high  direct 
taxes  must  foster  a  rebellious  spirit  if  the  income  of  those 
on  whom  they  are  imposed  is  a  small  one.  Wisdom 
therefore  bids  the  ruling  classes  to  be  moderate  in  this 
respect,  and  to  introduce  a  system  of  indirect  taxation  in- 
stead by  placing  a  tax  on  the  most  necessary  commodi- 
ties. Thereby  the  taxes  are  paid  for  in  the  price  of  the 
commodities  in  an  invisible  way,  and  the  majority  remain 
ignorant  as  to  the  amount  of  taxes  that  they  actually  pay. 
To  what  extent  the  consumer  is  taxed  on  bread,  salt, 
meat,  sugar,  coffee,  beer,  oil,  etc.,  is  difficult  to  calculate, 
and  most  persons  have  no  idea  to  what  extent  they  are 
fleeced.  These  taxes  weigh  heaviest  on  large  families; 
they  are  therefore  the  most  unjust  form  of  taxation  imag- 
inable. On  the  other  hand,  the  possessing  classes  pride, 
themselves  on  the  direct  taxes  that  they  pay,  and  by  the 
height  of  these  taxes  they  measure  the  political  rights 
that  they  enjoy  and  that  they  withhold  from  the  non- 
possessing  classes.  Moreover,  the  possessing  classes  pro- 
vide aid  and  assistance  from  the  state  for  themselves  by 
means  of  the  tariff  and  other  institutions  that  amount  to 
millions  of  dollars  annually  at  the  expense  of  the  masses. 
The  masses  are  furthermore  exploited  by  the  increased 
cost  of  living  as  a  result  of  capitalistic  organization  and 
the  formation  of  trusts;  these  the  state  either  favors  by 
its  policy  or  suffers  to  exist,  and  in  some  cases  it  even 
supports  them  by  actual  participation. 

As  long  as  the  masses  can  be  kept  in  ignorance  con- 
cerning the  nature  of  all  these  measures,  they  in  no  way 
endanger  the  state  or  the  ruling  social  order.  But  as  soon 


The  State  and  Society  311 

as  the  exploited  classes  become  conscious  of  their  ex-/ 
ploitation — and  the  growing  political  education  of  the 
masses  enables  them  to  become  so — the  glaring  injustice 
of  these  measures  arouses  bitterness  and  indignation. 
The  last  spark  of  confidence  in  a  sense  of  justice  of  the 
ruling  powers  is  destroyed.  The  true  nature  of  the  sta%e 
that  resorts  to  such  measures,the  true  nature  of  the  so- 
ciety that  favors  them,  become  recognized.  The  struggle 
for  the  ultimate  destruction  of  both  is  the  result. 

In  their  endeavor  to  do  justice  to  the  most  conflicting 
interests,  state  and  society  organize  one  institution  upon 
another,  but  no  old  one  is  thoroughly  removed  and  no 
new  one  is  thoroughly  carried  out.  Half  measures  are  re- 
sorted to  that  fail  to  satisfy  anyone.  The  new  require- 
ments of  civilization  that  have  grown  up  among  the  peo- 
ple require  some  consideration,  if  the  powers  that  be  are 
not  to  risk  everything.  To  meet  these  requirements  even 
insufficiently  entails  a  considerable  expense,  all  the  mort 
so  because  there  are  a  number  of  parasites  everywhere. 
But  alongside  of  these  new  institutions  all  the  old  insti- 
tutions that  are  averse  to  the  purposes  of  civilization  are 
maintained.  As  a  result  of  social  extremes  they  are  even 
expanded  and  become  all  the  more  troublesome  and  op- 
pressive, because  increasing  knowledge  and  judgment 
loudly  proclaim  them  to  be  superfluous.  The  police  de- 
partment, the  army,  the  courts,  the  prisons,  all  are  ex- 
tended and  become  more  expensive ;  but  thereby  neither 
the  outward  nor  the  inward  security  is  strengthened ;  ra- 
ther the  contrary  takes  place. 

A  highly  unnatural  condition  has  gradually  developed 
in  regard  to  the  international  relations  of  nations  to  one 
another.  These  relations  increase  with  the  growing  pro- 
duction of  commodities,  with  the  increased  exchange  of 
commodities  that  is  constantly  made  easier  by  improved 
methods  of  distribution,  and  by  the  fact  that  economic 
and  scientific  achievements  are  becoming  the  common 
property  of  all  nations.  Trade  and  customs  treaties  are 
made,  and,  with  the  aid  of  international  means,  expensive 
thoroughfares  are  constructed.  (The  Suez  Canal,  the  St. 
Gothard  Tunnel,  etc.)  Individual  states  support  steam- 
ship lines  that  help  to  increase  the  traffic  between  va- 


312       The  Class-State  and  the  Modern  Proletariat 

rious  countries  of  the  globe.  The  Postal  Union  was 
formed — a  marked  progress  in  civilization — international 
congresses  are  held  for  various  practical  and  scientific 
purposes ;  the  mental  products  of  the  several  nations  are 
disseminated  among  all  the  civilized  nations  of  the 
world  by  translation  into  their  respective  languages,  and 
by  all  these  international  activities  the  ideal  of  the 
brotherhood  of  man  is  fostered  and  increased.  But  the 
political  and  military  condition  of  "Europe  and  the  rest  of 
the  civilized  world  forms  a  striking  contradiction  to  this 
development.  Jingoism  and  national  hostilities  are  arti- 
ficially fostered  here  and  there.  Everywhere  the  ruling 
classes  seek  to  maintain  the  belief  that  the  people  are 
brimful  of  hostile  feeling  toward  one  another  and  are 
only  waiting  for  an  opportunity  to  attack  and  destroy 
each  other.  The  competitive  struggle  of  the  capitalist 
classes  of  the  various  countries  among  themselves,  be- 
comes, international,  and  assumes  the  character  of  a  strug- 
gle of  the  capitalist  class  of  one  country  against  the 
capitalist  class  of  another  country.  This  struggle,  sup- 
ported by  the  political  blindness  of  the  masses,  causes 
the  nations  to  vie  with  one  another  in  warlike  prepara- 
tions the  like  of  which  the  world  has  never  seen  before. 
This  rivalry  created  armies  of  a  prodigious  size ;  it  cre- 
ated tools  of  murder  and  destruction  for  warfare  on  land 
and  sea  of  such  perfection,  as  could  be  made  possible 
only  by  our  age  of  advanced  technical  development.  This 
rivalry  creates  a  development  of  the  means  of  destruc- 
tion that  finally  leads  to  self-destruction.  The  main- 
tenance of  the  armies  and  navies  necessitates  an  immense 
expense  that  grows  with  every  year  and  is  ultimately 
bound  to  ruin  the  wealthiest  nation.  During  the  year 
1908  Germany  alone  spent  over  15  million  marks  ($3,75<V 
ooo)  for  its  army  and  navy,  including  the  expenses  fot 
pensions  and  the  interest  on  the  national  debt  as  far  as 
same  had  been  contracted  for  military  purposes,  and  this 
sum  is  increasing  annually.  The  following  list,  com- 
piled by  Neymarck,  shows  the  combined  military  ex- 
penses of  the  European  states : 


The  State  and  Society  313 

1866.  1870.  1887.  1906. 

Army  and  navy...  3,000  3,000  4,500               6,725 

National  debts. ..  .66,000  75,ooo  117,000  148.000 

Interest 2,400  3,000  5,300                6,000* 

As  shown  by  this  list,  Europe  spends  6,725  million 
francs  ($1,362,000,000)  annually  for  armies  and  navies, 
and  6,000  million  francs  (1,215,000,000)  interest  on  debts 
that  have  mostly  been  incurred  to  serve  warlike  purposes. 
A  fine  state  of  affairs,  indeed ! 

America  and  Asia  have  begun  to  follow  the  example 
set  by  Europe.  The  United  States  spent  $967,000,000  in 
1875,  and  $3>592>250,ooo  in  1907  and  1908.  In  Japan 
the  expenses  for  army  and  navy,  including  the  pensions, 
amounted  to  $51,250,000  in  1875  and  to  $551,000,000  in 
1908  and  1909. 

As  a  result  of  these  expenses  objects  of  education  and 
civilization  are  grievously  neglected.  The  expenses  for 
external  defense  predominate  and  undermine  the  true  pur- 
pose of  the  state.  The  growing  armies  comprise  the 
healthiest  and  strongest  elements  of  the  nation,  and  for 
their  education  and  training  all  physical  and  mental 
forces  are  employed,  as  if  training  for  wholesale  murder 
were  the  most  important  mission  of  our  age.  At  the 
same  time  the  tools  of  warfare  and  murder  are  con- 
stantly being  improved.  They  have  attained  such  a  de- 
gree of  perfection  in  regard  to  speed,  range,  and  force  of 
destruction,  that  they  have  become  a  terror  alike  to 
friend  and  foe.  If  this  tremendous  apparatus  should  be 
set  in  motion — which  would  imply  that  the  warring 
European  forces  would  take  the  field  with  from  16  to  20 
milion  men — it  would  be  seen  that  it  has  become  uncon- 
trollable and  indirigible.  No  general  can  command  such 
masses ;  no  battlefield  is  large  enough  to  draw  them  up ; 
no  administration  can  provide  for  their  maintenance 
during  any  length  of  time.  In  case  a  battle  had  taken 
place  there  would  not  be  sufficient  hospitals  to  care  for 
the  wounded,  and  to  bury  the  dead  would  become  almost 
impossible.  If  we  furthermore  take  into  consideration 


*A.  Neymarck — La  Statistique  internationale  des  valeurs  mobiliers. 
Bulletin  de  1'institut  international  de  Statistique.     Copenhagen,  1908. 


314      The  Class-State  and  the  Modern  Proletariat 

what  disturbances  and  devastations  would  be  wrought 
by  a  European  war  on  the  field  of  economics,  we  may 
say,  without  fear  of  exaggeration :  The  next  war  will  be 
the  last  war.  The  number  of  failures  in  business  would 
exceed  all  previous  records.  The  export  trade  would 
come  to  a  standstill  and  thousands  of  factories  would  ac- 
cordingly be  forced  to  shut  down.  The  supply  of  pro- 
visions would  run  short,  whereby  the  cost  of  living 
would  be  enormously  increased.  It  would  require  mil- 
lions of  dollars  to  support  the  families  whose  bread-win- 
ners had  gone  to  war.  But  whence  should  come  the 
means  to  meet  all  these  prodigious  expenses?  At  present 
the  German  empire  alone  spends  from  eleven  to  twelve 
million  dollars  daily  to  maintain  its  army  and  navy  in 
readiness  for  war. 

The  political  and  military  status  of  Europe  has  taken 
a  trend  of  development  that  may  easily  end  with  a  catas- 
trophe by  which  bourgeois  society  will  be  engulfed.  On 
the  height  of  its  development  this  society  has  created 
conditions  which  make  its  own  existence  untenable.  It- 
self the  most  revolutionary  society  that  has  hitherto  ex- 
isted, it  has  furnished  the  means  for  its  own  destruction. 

In  a  great  many  of  our  municipalities  a  desperate 
state  of  affairs  gradually  begins  to  prevail,  since  it  be- 
comes almost  impossible  to  satisfy  the  annually  increas- 
ing demands.  These  demands  are  especially  heavy  in 
our  rapidly  growing  large  cities  and  industrial  centers, 
and  most  of  them  cannot  meet  the  demands  made  upon 
them  in  any  other  way  than  by  raising  the  taxes  and  by 
borrowing.  Schools,  building  of  streets,  illumination, 
water-works,  sanitation,  educational  and  wellfare  work, 
police  and  administration  entail  constantly  increasing 
expenses.  Besides,  the  well-to-do  minority  makes  very 
heavy  demands  on  the  community.  Higher  institutions 
of  learning  are  demanded,  the  building  of  museums  and 
theatres,  the  laying  out  of  fine  residential  districts  and 
parks,  with  appropriate  illumination,  pavement,  etc.  The 
majority  of  the  population  may  object  to  these  privileges, 
but  they  are  an  innate  part  of  the  nature  of  conditions. 
The  minority  are  in  power  and  they  use  this  power  to 
satisfy  their  requirements  of  civilization  at  the  expense 


The  State  and  Society  315 

of  the  community.  These  increased  requirements  are 
justified,  too,  for  they  represent  progress.  Their  only 
shortcoming  is  that  they  are  mainly  enjoyed  by  the  pos- 
sessing classes  alone,  while  they  ought  to  be  for  the 
common  enjoyment  of  all.  Another  evil  is  that  the  ad- 
ministrations are  often  expensive  without  being  good. 
Not  infrequently  the  officials  are  incompetent  and  lack 
proper  understanding;  while  town  or  city  councillors  are 
generally  so  much  engaged  with  the  care  for  their  private 
existence  that  they  are  unable  to  make  the  sacrifices  that 
a  thorough  performance  of  their  duties  would  require. 
Often  public  positions  are  used  to  further  private  inter- 
ests to  the  detriment  of  the  community.  The  tax-payers 
must  bear  the  consequences.  A  thorough  and  satisfac- 
tory reform  of  these  conditions  cannot  be  attained  by 
present-day  society.  In  whatever  form  the  taxes  may  be 
levied,  the  dissatisfaction  increases.  In  a  few  decades 
most  of  the  municipalities  will  be  unable  to  satisfy  their 
demands  by  the  present  form  of  taxation  and  adminis- 
tration. In  the  municipalities,  as  in  the  state,  the  need 
of  a  thoroughgoing  transformation  becomes  manifest. 
In  fact,  the  greatest  demands  for  purposes  of  civilization 
are  made  upon  them ;  they  form  the  nucleus  from  which 
the  social  transformation  will  proceed  as  soon  as  the  will 
and  power  for  such  transformation  exist.  But  how  shall 
this  be  attained  while  private  interests  control  every- 
thing and  public  interests  are  of  secondary  importance? 

This  is,briefly  stated,  the  condition  of  our  public  life, 
which  is  but  a  reflection  of  the  social  condition  of  so- 
ciety as  a  whole. 

2. — Aggravation  of  Social  Extremes. 

In  present-day  life  the  struggle  for  existence  is  becom- 
ing increasingly  difficult.  The  war  of  all  against  all  is 
raging  and  is  waged  relentlessly,  often  without  any  dis- 
crimination in  the  methods  employed.  The  French  say- 
ing: "Ote-toi  de  la,  que  je  m'y  mette"  (get  out  of  there 
that  I  may  take  your  place),  is  practiced  in  actual  life. 
The  weak  must  make  way  for  the  strong.  If  the  material 
force  of  money,  of  property,  does  not  suffice,  the  mean- 


3i6      The  Class-State  and  the  Modern  Proletariat 

est  methods  are  resorted  to  that  a  desired  aim  may  be 
attained.  Lies,  fraud  and  deception,  forgery  and  per- 
jury, the  worst  crimes  are  commited  for  this  end.  As 
one  individual  is  arrayed  against  another  in  this  warfare, 
thus  we  find  class  against  class,  sex  against  sex,  age 
against  age.  Advantage  is  the  only  arbiter  of  human  re- 
lations; every  other  consideration  is  set  aside.  As  soon 
as  advantage  requires  it,  thousands  upon  thousands  of 
workingmen  and  women  are  cast  out  into  the  street,  and 
become  public  charges  or  enforced  vagabonds.  In 
masses  workers  wander  from  place  to  place  through  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  land,  and  society  fears  and  de- 
spises them  more  and  more  as  the  duration  of  their  un- 
employment makes  their  external  appearance  more 
shabby,  and,  eventually,  also  demoralizes  their  character. 
Respectable  society  does  not  know  what  it  means  to  do 
without  the  simplest  requirements  of  order  and  cleanli- 
ness for  months,  to  wander  about  with  an  empty  stom- 
ach, and  to  reap  nothing  but  ill-disguised  disgust  and 
contempt  from  those  who  are  the  upholders  of  this  sys- 
tem. The  families  of  these  unfortunates  suffer  the  hard- 
est privations  and  become  dependent  on  public  charity. 
Sometimes  despair  drives  parents  to  awful  crimes  against 
their  children  and  themselves,  to  murder  and  suicide. 
Especially  during  hard  times  these  deeds  of  despair  in- 
crease to  an  appalling  degree.  But  the  ruling  classes  are 
not  perturbed  by  such  occurrences.  The  same  editions 
of  the  daily  papers  that  report  such  deeds,  caused  by  pov- 
erty and  despair,  also  contain  reports  of  festive  revelries 
and  glittering  official  pageants,  as  if  there  were  joy  and 
abundance  everywhere. 

The  general  need  and  the  increasingly  difficult  strug- 
gle for  existence  drive  more  and  more  women  and  girls 
into  lives  of  degradation  and  ruin.  Demoralization,  bru- 
tality and  crime  increase,  while  the  prisons,  the  peniten- 
tiaries and  the  so-called  reformatories  can  hardly  contain 
the  mass  of  their  inmates. 

Crime  is  closely  connected  with  social  conditions.  So- 
ciety does  not  wish  to  admit  this  fact.  Like  the  ostrich, 
that  conceals  its  head  in  the  sand  not  to  see  approaching 
danger,  we  deceive  ourselves  in  regard  to  these  con- 


The  State  and  Society  317 

ditions  that  should  lead  to  self-accusation.  We  try  to 
persuade  ourselves  that  it  is  all  due  to  laziness,  love  of 
pleasure  and  lack  of  piety  on  the  part  of  the  workingmen. 
This  is  self-delusion  and  hypocrisy  of  the  worst  kind.  As 
social  conditions  grow  more  unfavorable  for  a  majority 
of  the  population,  crimes  become  more  numerous  and 
more  severe.  The  struggle  for  existence  assumes  its 
most  cruel  and  violent  form  and  creates  a  condition  in 
which  men  regard  one  another  as  mortal  enemies.  So- 
cial bonds  are  severed  and  human  beings  treat  each  other 
with  hostility.* 

The  ruling  classes  who  do  not  see,  nor  wish  to  see,  to 
the  bottom  of  things,  seek  to  remedy  these  evils  in  their 
own  way.  When  poverty  and  need  increase,  and,  as  a 
result,  demoralization  and  crime  increase  likewise,  the 
source  of  the  evil  is  not  sought  out  in  order  to  plug  up 
this  source,  but  the  products  of  these  conditions  are 
punished.  As  the  evils  grow  and  the  number  of  evil- 
doers increases,  persecutions  and  penalties  are  made 
more  severe.  The  belief  seems  to  be  that  the  devil  can 
be  driven  out  by  Satan.  Even  Professor  Haeckel  deems 
it  justifiable  to  punish  crime  with  severe  penalities  and  to 
resort  to  capital  punishment.**  On  this  point  he  is  fully 
agreed  with  reactionaries  of  all  shades  who  otherwise  are 
his  mortal  enemies.  Haeckel  holds  the  opinion  that  in- 
corrigible criminals  and  wrong-doers  should  be  exter- 
minated like  weeds  that  rob  the  plants  of  air,  light  and 
the  soil  to  grow  in.  If  Haeckel  had  devoted  himself 
partly  to  the  study  of  social  sciences  instead  of  devoting 
himself  to  the  natural  sciences  exclusively,  he  would 
know  that  these  criminals  could  be  transformed  into  use- 
ful members  of  human  society,  if  society  would  offer 


*Plato  already  recognized  the  results  of  such  conditions.  He 
wrote:  "A  state  in  which  classes  exist  is  not  one  single  state  but 
two.  The  poor  form  one,  and  the  rich  form  the  other.  Both  dwell 
together,  but  always  way-lay  one  another.  Finally  the  ruling  class 
becomes  unable  to  wage  a  war,  for  then  it  depends  upon  the  masses 
whom,  when  armed,  it  fears  more  than  the  enemy." — Plato,  The 
State.  Aristotel  says:  "Widespread  poverty  is  an  evil,  for  it  can 
hardly  be  prevented  that  such  persons  become  promoters  of  disorder." 

**Natural  History  of  the  Creation. 


318      The  Class-State  and  the  Modern  Proletariat 

them  the  needful  conditions  of  existence.  He  would 
know  that  the  extermination  of  individual  criminals 
would  no  more  prevent  the  perpetuation  of  new  crimes, 
than  weeds  could  be  prevented  from  growing  while  their 
roots  or  their  seeds  remained.  Man  will  never  be  able 
to  prevent  absolutely  the  formation  of  harmful  organisms 
in  nature.  But  he  will  be  able  so  to  improve  the  social 
order  that  he  himself  has  created,  that  the  conditions  of 
existence  shall  be  favorable  to  all,  that  each  individual 
shall  be  enabled  to  develop  freely,  and  shall  no  longer  be 
compelled  to  satisfy  his  hunger,  his  desire  for  posses- 
sions, or  his  ambitions,  at  the  expense  of  others.* 

They  who  seek  to  remove  crime  by  removing  its 
causes  cannot  favor  violent  methods  of  repression.  They 
cannot  prevent  society  from  protecting  itself  in  its  own 
way  against  criminals  whom  it  can,  of  course,  not  give 
free  scope,  but  they  demand  all  the  more  urgently  a 
transformation  of  society  that  would  mean  a  removal  of 
the  causes  of  crime. 

The  connection  between  social  conditions  and  misde- 
meanors and  crimes  has  frequently  been  shown  by  statis- 
ticians and  political  economists.**  One  of  the  most  fre- 
quent misdemeanors,  that  is  regarded  as  a  misde- 
meanor by  our  society,  in  spite  of  all  its  Christian  teach- 
ings about  charity — is  mendicancy.  In  connection  with 
this  subject  the  statistics  of  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony 
teach  us  that  the  increase  of  the  great  crisis  that  began  in 
Germany  in  1890  and  attained  its  height  from  1892  to 
1893,  the  number  of  persons  punished  for  mendicancy  in- 
creased likewise.  During  1890  the  number  of  persons 
punished  for  this  misdemeanor  was  8,815;  during  1891, 
10,075,  and  during  1892,  13,120.  Similar  facts  were  ob- 
served in  Austria,  where,  during  1891,  90,926  persons 


*A  siijiilar  thought  is  expressed  by  Plato  in  his  "State" :  "Crimes 
are  caused  by  ignorance,  by  bad  education  and  institutions  of  the 
state."  Plato  was  better  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  society  than 
many  of  his  learned  followers  two  thousand  and  three  hundred  years 
later.  That  is  not  very  encouraging. 

**M.  Sursky — New  facts  concerning  the  economic  causes  of  crime. 
"New  Era." 


The  State  and  Society  319 

were  convicted  of  mendicancy  and  vagrancy,  and  98,998 
persons  during  1892.*    This  is  a  considerable  increase. 

Pauperization  of  the  masses  on  the  one  hand  and  in- 
creasing wealth  on  the  other  is  the  stamp  of  our  period. 
The  trend  of  present-day  development  may  be  well 
judged  from  the  fact  that  in  the  United  States  five  men — 
John  D.  Rockefeller,  the  late  Harriman,  J.  Pierpont  Mor- 
gan, W.  K.  Vanderbilt,  and  G.  J.  Gould — in  the  year  1900, 
owned  together  over  800,000,000  dollars,  and  that  they 
possessed  sufficient  influence  to  control  the  economic 
life  of  the  United  States  and  partly  also  that  of  Europe. 
In  all  civilized  countries  the  large  combinations  of  capi- 
talists form  the  most  noteworthy  phenomenon  of  the  re- 
cent period  and  are  constantly  gaining  more  social  and 
political  importance. 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

The  Process   of  Concentration   in  Capitalistic 
Industry. 

i. — The  Displacement  of  Agriculture  by  Industry. 

The  capitalistic  system  of  production  not  only  domi- 
nates the  social  organization  but  also  the  political  organ- 
ization. It  influences  and  controls  the  thoughts  and  sen- 
timents of  society.  Capitalism  is  the  ruling  power.  The 
capitalist  is  lord  and  master  of  the  proletarian,  whose  la- 
bor power  he  buys  as  a  commodity  to  be  applied  and 
made  use  of,  at  a  price  that  oscillates  according  to  sup- 
plv  and  demand  and  the  cost  of  production,  as  with 
every  other  commodity.  But  the  capitalist  does  not  buy 
labor  power  "to  please  God,"  or  to  render  a  service  to 
the  workingman — as  he  sometimes  seeks  to  present  it — 


*H.  Herz — Crime  and  Criminals  in  Austria.  The  author  says: 
"The  prevailing  economic  status  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in 
the  judgment  of  crime.  The  organization  of  production  and  con- 
sumption and  the  distribution  of  wealth  has  a  marked  influence  on 
crime  in  many  ways." 


320  Concentration  in  Capitalistic  Industry 

but  to  obtain  surplus  value  by  it,  which  he  pockets  in  the 
form  of  profit,  interest  and  rent.  This  surplus  value 
squeezed  out  of  the  workingman — inasmuch  as  it  is  not 
spent  by  the  employer  for  his  personal  enjoyment — is 
crystallized  into  capital,  and  enables  him  steadily  to  en- 
large his  plant,  to  improve  the  process  of  production,  and 
to  employ  more  labor  power.  Thereby  again  he  be- 
comes enabled  to  encounter  his  weaker  competitor,  as  a 
horseman,  clad  in  armor,  might  encounter  an  unarmed 
pedestrian,  and  to  destroy  him. 

This  unequal  struggle  is  developing  more  and  more  in 
all  domains,  and  woman,  furnishing  the  cheapest  labor 
power,  beside  the  child,  plays  an  important  part  in  this 
struggle.  The  result  of  these  conditions  is,  that  the  line 
of  demarcation  becomes  sharper  between  a  relatively 
small  number  of  powerful  capitalists  and  the  great  mass 
of  non-possessors  of  capital,  who  depend  upon  the  daily 
sale  of  their  labor  power.  With  this  development  the 
position  of  the  middle  classes  is  becoming  more  and  more 
unfavorable. 

One  line  of  industry  after  another,  where  until  re- 
cently the  small  manufacturers  predominated,  are  being 
taken  hold  of  by  capitalistic  enterprise.  The  competition 
of  the  capitalists  among  themselves  compels  them  con- 
stantly to  seek  new  realms  to  be  exploited.  Capital  goes 
about  "like  a  roaring  lion  seeking  something  to  devour." 
The  small  men  are  ruined,  and  if  they  do  not  succeed  in 
finding  some  other  field  of  activity — which  is  becoming 
increasingly  difficult — they  sink  down  into  the  class  of 
wage-workers.  All  attempts  to  prevent  the  decline  of 
handicraft  and  the  middle  class  by  means  of  laws  and  in- 
stitutions that  have  been  taken  from  the  shelves  of  the 
past,  prove  useless.  They  may  deceive  one  or  another 
for  a  little  while  in  regard  to  his  true  position,  but  soon 
the  delusion  is  dispelled  by  the  force  of  facts.  The 
process  of  absorption  of  the  small  ones  by  the  great  ones 
is  becoming  clearly  evident  to  all  with  the  unrelenting 
force  of  a  natural  law. 

In  what  manner  the  social  structure  of  Germany  has 
been  transformed  during  the  brief  period  of  twenty-five 
years — from  1882  to  1895  and  from  1895  to  1907 — that 


The  State  and  Society 


321 


may  be  seen  by  a  comparison  of  the  census  figures  from 
these  years,  as  shown  by  the  following  table : 


Persons  gainfully  employed 
in  principal  calling 

Increase  (+)  or 
decrease  (  —  ) 
since  1882 

1882       |       18  5 

1907 

Agriculture  

8,236,496 
6,396,465 
1,570,318 
397,582 

1,031,147 

1,351,486 

8,292,602 
8,281,220 
2.338,5  i 
432  49i 

1,425,961 
2,142,808 

9,883,257 
11,256,254 
3,477,626 
47  ,695 

1,738,530 

?,?  •!.••-.; 

+  1,646,761  =    19.89 
+  4.859,789  =    75.98 
T  1,907.308  =  121  46 
+       74,"3=    18.63 

+      707.383=    68,56 
+  2,050,497  ==  151,40 

Commerce  and  Traffic  .... 

Domestic  service 

Public  service  and  learned 
professions       

No  occupation  

Total  

18,986,494 

22,913,683 

30,232,345  j  +11,145,851  =  53.95 

Persons  gainfully  employed 
including  their  families 

Increase  (-{-)  or 
decrease  (  —  ) 
since  1882 

1882 

1895 

1906 

Agriculture  

19,225,455 
16,058,080 
4,531,080 
938,294 

2,222,982 
2,246,222 

18,501,307 

20,253,24  1 
5,^66,836 
886,807 

2,835,014 
3,327,069 

17,681,176 
26,38  ,537 
8,278,239 
7*2,748 

3,407,126 
5,174,703 

—  1,544,279  =    18.18 
+10,328,457=    64.25 
+  3,747,159  =    82.69 
—     145,546=    15.57 

+  1.184,144  =    53-33 
-f  2,928,481  =  130.36 

Industry 

Commerces  and  Traffic  .... 
Domestic  service  

Public  service  and  learned 
professions 

No  occupation  

Total  

45.222,  'I3 

51,760,284 

61,720,528 

4-19,878,066=    34.27 

These  figures  show  that  during  the  twenty-five  years 
referred  to,  a  considerable  shifting  of  the  population  and 
its  occupations  has  taken  place.  The  population  em- 
ployed in  industry,  commerce  and  traffic  has  increased  at 
the  expense  of  the  agricultural  population.  Almost  the 
entire  increase  in  population — 6,548,171  from  1882  to 
1895,  and  9,950,245  from  1895  to  1907 — has  been  absorbed 
by  the  former.  Although  the  number  of  persons  gain- 
fully employed  in  industry  as  their  principal  calling  has 
increased,  this  increase  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  gen- 
eral growth  of  the  population,  and  the  number  of  the 
members  of  the  families  of  persons  so  employed  has  even 
decreased  by  1,544,279=8  per  cent. 

Industry  (including  the  building  trades  and  mining), 
commerce  and  traffic,  present  a  different  aspect.  Here 
the  number  of  persons  gainfully  employed  and  their  fam- 
ilies have  considerably  increased;  in  fact,  they  have  in- 
creased more  rapidly  than  the  population.  The  number 
of  persons  employed  in  industiy  exceeds  the  number  of 


322  Concentration  in  Capitalistic  Industry 

persons  employed  in  agriculture  by  1,372,997=15  per 
cent.  The  number  of  the  members  of  their  families  ex- 
ceeds the  number  of  the  members  of  families  of  persons 
employed  in  agriculture  by  8,705,361=49  per  cent.  The 
numbers  of  persons  employed  in  commerce  and  traffic, 
together  with  their  families,  show  a  still  greater  increase. 

The  result  is  that  the  agricultural  population,  which 
is  the  real  conservative  portion  of  the  population  and 
forms  the  mainstay  of  the  old  order  of  things,  is  being 
repressed  more  and  more  and  overtaken  by  the  popula- 
tion engaged  in  industry,  commerce  and  traffic.  That 
the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  learned  professions 
and  their  families  have  increased  likewise,  does  not  alter 
these  facts.  The  strong  increase  in  the  number  of  per- 
sons having  no  occupation  and  their  families  is  due  to  the 
growing  number  of  persons  living  on  their  rents,  includ- 
ing accident,  invalid  and  old-age  insurance,  the  greater 
number  of  persons  dependent  on  charity,  students  of  all 
sorts,  and  inmates  of  poorhouses,  hospitals,  insane  asy- 
lums and  prisons. 

Another  characteristic  fact  is  the  slight  increase  in  the 
number  of  persons  employed  in  domestic  service  and  the 
direct  decrease  in  the  number  of  servants.  This  shows, 
firstly,  that  fewer  persons  can  afford  to  employ  domestic 
help;  it  shows  furthermore  that  proletarian  women  who 
strive  for  greater  independence,  like  this  profession  less 
and  less. 

In  1882  the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  agriculture 
as  their  principal  calling  constituted  43.38  per  cent,  of 
persons  gainfully  employed;  in  1895,  36.19  per  cent.,  and 
in  1907  only  32.69  per  cent.  The  agricultural  population 
— including  the  families  of  those  gainfully  employed  in 
agriculture — in  1882  constituted  42.51  per  cent,  of  the  en- 
tire population ;  in  1895,  35.74  per  cent.,  and  in  190*7 
only  28.65.  Per  cent.  Those  employed  in  industry  as  their 
principal  calling  constituted,  in  1882,  33.69  per  cent,  of 
the  entire  population;  in  1895,  36.14  per  cent.,  and  in 
1907,  37.23  per  cent.  Including  their  families,  they  con- 
stituted 35.51  per  cent,  in  1882;  39.12  in  1895,  and  42.75 
in  1907.  The  following  figures  show  the  percentage  of 
persons  employed  in  commerce  and  traffic : 


The  State  and  Society  323 

Persons  employed.    Including  their  families. 

1882  8.27  10.02 

1895  10.21  11.52 

1907 ii-5o  1341 

We  see,  then,  that  in  Germany,  at  present,  56.16  per 
cent,  of  the  population  (in  Saxony  even  74.5  per  cent.)  de- 
pend upon  industry  and  commerce,  and  that  not  more 
than  28.65  Per  cent,  (in  Saxony  only  10.07  Per  cent.)  are 
engaged  in  agriculture. 

2. — Increasing  Pauperization.    Preponderance  of  Large 
Industrial  Establishments. 

It  is  also  important  to  state  how  the  population  em- 
ployed in  gainful  occupations  is  divided  among  independ- 
ent workers,  employes  and  laborers,  and  what  propor- 
tion of  each  of  these  is  furnished  by  either  sex.  This 
information  may  be  gathered  from  the  table  on  the  fol- 
lowing page. 

This  table  shows  that  the  number  of  persons  independ- 
ently engaged  in  agriculture  increased  by  280,692  from 
1882  to  1895,  an  increase  of  12.5  per  cent.;  but  that  from 
1895  to  1907  it  decreased  by  67,751,  so  that  from  1882  to 
1907  the  number  of  independent  persons  in  agriculture 
has  increased  by  only  212,941=9.2  per  cent.  On  the 
other  hand  the  number  of  workingmen  that  had  de- 
creased by  254,025=4.3  per  cent.,  from  1882  to  1895,  has, 
since  1895,  increased  by  1,655,677=29.4  per  cent.  Upon 
examining  this  increase  more  closely  we  find  that  it  is 
mainly  due  to  female  members  helping  to  support  the 
families.  (Among  the  total  increase  of  1,990,930  are 
170,532  male  and  1,820,938  female.)  When  we  take  only 
the  rural  day-laborers  and  help  into  consideration,  we 
find  that  the  male  workers  have  decreased  by  381,195  per- 
sons, while  the  female  workers  have  increased  by  45,942 
persons.  Altogether  this  shows  the  considerable  de- 
crease of  335,253  persons  among  agricultural  laborers. 
In  agriculture,  then,  not  only  the  number  of  independent 
persons,  but  also  the  number  of  help  and  day  laborers 
has  decreased.  The  increase  in  the  agricultural  occupa- 
tion, compared  to  the  previous  census,  is  due  to  the 


324 


Concentration  in  Capitalistic  Industry 


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The  State  and  Society  325 

greatly  increased  assistance  from  members  of  the  fam- 
ilies, especially  the  female  members. 

The  industrial  occupation  presents  a  different  picture. 
In  a  term  of  25  years  the  persons  independently  em- 
ployed decreased  by  234,024=10.6  per  cent.,  while  the 
population  increased  by  36.48  per  cent.  Mechanics, 
working  alone  or  working  with  two  assistants,  have 
mainly  disappeared.  The  number  of  wage-workers  has 
increased  by  1,859,468  from  1882  to  1895,  and  by  2,637,- 
414  from  1895  to  1907.  When  we  count  only  the  wage- 
workers  proper,  not  including  the  members  of  their  fam- 
ilies who  assist  at  their  work,  we  find  that  their  uumber 
has  increased  from  5,899,708  in  1895  to  8,460,338  in  1907. 
Three-quarters  of  all  persons  employed  in  industrial  oc- 
cupations are  wage-workers  (75.16  per  cent.). 

In  commerce  and  trade  we  find  the  opposite  ratio. 
Here  the  number  of  persons  independently  engaged  has 
greatly  increased,  but  the  number  of  employes  and  work- 
ers has  increased  likewise.  The  number  of  women  inde- 
pendently engaged  in  commerce  has  increased  especially ; 
they  chiefly  are  either  widows  who  seek  to  make  their 
living  as  small  dealers,  or  married  women  who  endeavour 
to  increase  their  husbands'  income.  The  number  of  per- 
sons independently  engaged  in  commerce  increased  by 
310,584=44.3  per  cent.,  from  1882  to  1907.  But  the  num- 
ber of  employes  and  wage-workers  has  increased  still 
more  (by  364,361=258.8,  and  by  1,232,263=169.4  per 
cent.).  This  shows  how  tremendously  commerce  and 
trade  have  developed,  particularly  from  1895  to  1907. 
There  are  almost  twice  as  many  employes  as  prior  to 
that  period,  and  among  these  almost  six  times  as  many 
female  employes. 

During  the  period  from  1882  to  1907  the  entire  number 
of  persons  independently  engaged  in  the  three  occupa- 
tions increased  by  5.7  per  cent. ;  it  did  not  keep  pace  then 
with  the  increase  in  population  (36.48  per  cent.).  The 
number  of  employes  increased  by  325.4  per  cent.,  and 
the  number  of  wage-workers  by  39.1  per  cent.  We  must 
furthermore  take  into  consideration  that  among  5,490,- 
288  independent  persons,  many  lead  an  entirely  proleta- 
rian existence.  Among  the  2,086,368  manufactories  enu- 
merated there  were  no  less  than  994,743  small  producers 


326  Concentration  in  Capitalistic  Industry 

who  worked  alone  and  875,518  who  did  not  employ  over 
five  assistants.  In  commerce  there  were,  in  1907  among 
709,231  establishments,  no  less  than  232,780  maintained 
by  the  owners  without  assistance.  There  were,  besides, 
5240  porters,  errand-boys,  etc.,  and  thousands  of  insur- 
ance agents,  book  agents,  etc. 

Another  point  to  be  considered  is  that  the  number  of 
independent  persons  in  the  three  occupations  does  not 
coincide  with  the  number  of  establishments.  If  a  firm, 
for  instance,  has  dozens  of  branch  establishments,  as  is 
frequently  the  case  in  the  tobacco  trade,  or  if  a  concern 
runs  a  number  of  stores,  each  branch  is  enumerated  as  an 
individual  establishment.  The  same  is  true  of  industrial 
enterprises,  when,  for  instance,  a  machine  factory  also 
runs  an  iron  foundry,  a  carpenter  shop,  etc.  The  figures 
then  do  not  convey  sufficient  information  regarding  the 
concentration  of  capital  on  the  one  hand  and  the  stand- 
ard of  living  on  the  other.  And  yet,  in  spite  of  all  these 
deficiencies,  the  results  of  the  latest  census  of  June,  12, 
1907,  present  a  picture  of  the  most  powerful  concentra- 
tion of  capital  in  industry,  commerce  and  traffic.  They 
show  that,  hand  in  hand  with  the  industrialization  of  oui 
entire  economic  system,  a  concentration  of  all  the  means 
of  production  into  a  few  hands  is  rapidly  progressing. 

The  independent  small  manufacturers  and  traders 
working  alone,  of  whom  there  still  were  1,877,872  in 
1882,  have  become  fewer  again  since  1895.  In  1895,  i,- 
714,351  were  enumerated,  and  in  1907  only  1,446,286;  a 
decrease  of  431,586=22.9  per  cent.  The  number  of  small 
producers  and  dealers  has  rapidly  decreased  from  census 
to  census.  In  1882  it  was  59.1  per  cent.;  1895,  46.5,  and, 
1907,  only  37.3  per  cent,  of  all  persons  gainfully  em- 
ployed. At  the  same  time  the  number  of  large  manu- 
facturing and  commercial  enterprises  has  grown  from 
22.0  to  29.6,  and  (1907)  to  37.3  per  cent.  From  1895  to 
1907  the  number  of  persons  employed  by  small  concerns 
increased  by  12.2  per  cent.;  the  number  of  those  em- 
ployed by  concerns  of  medium  size,  by  48.5  per  cent.,  and 
the  number  of  those  employed  by  large  concerns,  by 
75.7  per  cent.  Among  5,350,025  persons  industrially  em- 
ployed in  1907,  the  by  far  largest  group  is  employed  by 
large  concerns,  while,  in  1882,  a  greater  number  of  per- 


The  State  and  Society  327 

sons  were  small,  individual  producers.  In  the  seven  fol- 
lowing branches  of  industry  the  large  concerns  predomi- 
nate, employing  more  than  half  of  all  persons  engaged 
in  these  industries.  Of  each  100  persons  the  following 
percentage  were  employed  by  large  concerns: 

Mining   96.6  per  cent. 

Machine  manufacture 70.4  " 

Chemical  trades  .. 69.8  " 

Textile  trades  67.5 

Paper  trades 58.4  " 

Industry  of  pottery  and  earthenware 52.5 

Industry  of  soaps,  fats  and  oils 52.3  " 

In  the  other  groups  industry  on  a  large  scale  already 
predominated  in  1895,  and  everywhere  its  predominance 
has  been  still  further  increased.  In  the  malleation  of 
metals,  47.0;  in  the  polygraphic  trades,  43.8;  in  traffic, 
41.6,  and  in  the  building  trades,  40.5  per  cent,  of  all  per- 
sons were  employed  by  large  concerns.)  We  see,  then, 
that  in  almost  every  branch  development  has  favored  in- 
dustry on  a  large  scale. 

The  concentration  of  manufacture  and  the  concentra- 
tion of  capital,  which  are  one  and  the  same  thing,  take 
place  particularly  rapidly  wherever  capitalistic  produc- 
tion obtains  full  control.  Let  us,  for  instance,  consider 
the  brewing  industry.  In  the  German  brewery-tax 
district,  excluding  Bavaria,  Wurtemburg,  Baden  and 
Alsace-Lorraine,  there  were: 

Number  of  Producing  1000 

breweries.  hectolitres  of  beer, 

1873   13>56i  10,927  19,655 

1880  11,564  10,374  21,136 

1890    8,969  8,054  32>279 

1900 6,903  6,283  44,734 

1905   5.995  5*602  46,264 

1906  5»785  5423  45*867 

1907  5*528  5,251  46,355 

So  the  number  of  breweries  decreased,  from  1873  to 
1907,  by  8033=59.3  per  cent. ;  that  of  breweries  de- 
creased by  5676=51.9  per  cent.,  but  the  production  of 
beer  increased  by  26,700,000  hectolitres  =  135.7  per  cent. 


328  Concentration  in  Capitalistic  Industry 

This  signifies  a  downfall  of  the  small  concerns  and  a  tre- 
mendous growth  of  the  large  concerns,  whose  productiv- 
ity has  been  multiplied.  In  1873,  1450  hectolitres  and  in 
1907  8385  hectolitres  were  produced  by  each  brewery.  Tt 
is  the  same  wherever  capitalism  rules. 

Similar  results  are  shown  by  the  German  coal-mining 
industry  and  other  mining  industries  of  the  German  Em- 
pire. In  coal  mining  the  number  of  concerns  that 
amounted  to  an  average  of  623,  from  1871  to  1875,  dwin- 
dled down  to  406,  in  1889.  But  at  the  same  time  the  pro- 
duction of  coal  rose  from  34,485,400  tons  to  67,342,200 
tons,  and  the  average  number  of  persons  employed  in- 
creased from  127,074  to  239,954.  The  following  table  il- 
lustrates this  process  of  concentration  in  the  mining  of 
mineral  coal  and  brown  coal,  until  1907: 


v         Number  of 
r     Concerns 

Mineral  Coal 
Employed 

'     Quantity  Number  of 
looo  tons     Concerns 

Brown  Coal     Quaptitv 
AEmpfoey?d0-    Ioootons 

1900 

338 

413,693 

109,290.2 

569 

50,911 

40,498.0 

1905 

331 

493,308 

121,298.6 

533 

54,969 

52,512.1 

1906 

322 

I37,H7.9 

536 

58.637 

56,419.6 

1907 

313 

545  ,'330 

143,185.7 

535 

66,462 

62,546.7 

We  see,  then,  that,  in  the  production  of  mineral  coal 
since  the  seventies,  the  number  of  concerns  has  de- 
creased by  49.8  per  cent.,  while  the  number  of  wage- 
workers  employed  has  increased  by  216.9  Per  cent.,  and 
the  output  even  by  420.6  per  cent.  The  following  table 
shows  the  development  in  the  entire  mining  industry : 

Y  Number  of    Average  number      Quantity 

concerns  employed  1000  tons 

1871—75  3,034  277,878  51,056.0 

1887  2,146  337,634  88,873.0 

1889  1,962  368,896  99,414.0 

1905  1,862  661,310  205,592.6 

1906  1,862  688,853  229,146.1 
,  1907  1,958  734,903  242,615.2 

Here  the  number  of  concerns  has  decreased  by  35.5 
per  cent.,  while  the  number  of  wage-workers  employed 
increased  by  164.4  Per  cent.,  and  the  output,  374.5  per 
cent.  The  number  of  employers  had  grown  smaller  but 
wealthier,  and  the  number  of  proletarians  had  greatly  in- 
creased. 

In  the  industrial  districts  of  the  Rhine  and  Westpha- 


The  State  and  Society  329 

lia  there  still  were  156  mines  in  1907,  but  34  of  these  con 
trolled  more  than  50  per  cent,  of  the  output.  Although 
the  census  enumerates  156  mines,  the  coal  trust,  which 
controls  the  mines  with  but  a  few  exceptions,  had  only 
76  members.  To  such  extent  the  process  of  concentra- 
tion has  developed.  According  to  the  reports  of  Febru- 
ary, 1908,  the  output  of  the  coal  trust  amounted  to  77.9 
million  tons  of  coal.* 

In  1871  there  were  306  blast-furnaces,  employing  23,- 
191  laborers  and  producing  1,563,682  tons  of  crude  iron. 
In  1907,  303  blast  furnaces,  employing  45,201  laborers, 
produced  12,875,200  tons.  In  1871  crude  iron  was  pro- 
duced at  the  rate  of  5,110  tons  for  every  blast-furnace; 
in  1907  at  the  rate  of  42,491  tons  for  every  blast-furnace. 
According  to  a  list  published  in  "Steel  and  Iron,"  in 
March,  1896,  only  one  blast-furnace  in  Germany  was  able 
to  produce  crude  iron  at  the  rate  of  820  tons  in  24  hours. 
But  in  1907  there  were  12  blast-furnaces  that  could,  with- 
in 24  hours,  produce  1000  tons,  and  more.* 

In  1871-1872,  311  factories  in  the  beet  sugar  industry 
consumed  2,250,918  tons  of  beets.  In  1907-1908,  365  fac- 
tories consumed  13,482,750  tons.  The  average  consump- 
tion of  beets  per  factory  was  7,237  tons  during  1871-1872, 
and  36,939  tons  during  1907-1908.  This  mechanical 
revolution  does  not  take  place  in  industry  alone,  but  also 
in  commerce  and  traffic.  The  following  table  shows  the 
development  of  German  maritime  trade : 

Year  Sailing  vessels  Regist'd  tonnage  Number  of  crew 

1871  4,372  900,361  34,739 

looi  2,272  525,140  12,922 

1905  2,294  493,644  12,914 

1908  2,345  433,749  12,800 

1909  2,361  416,514  12,844 
Less  than  in  1871  2,011  less  483,847    less  21,895 

Sailing  vessels,  then,  are  considerably  diminishing,  and 
among  those  still  existing  the  registered  tonnage  and  the 
number  of  the  crew  is  decreasing.  In  1871  there  were, 
for  each  sailing  vessel,  205.9  registered  tonnage  and  7.9 
members  of  the  crew.  In  1909  each  sailing  vessel  had  an 


*Otto  Hue — History  of  the  development  of  the  mining  industries. 


330  Concentration  in  Capitalistic  Industry 

average  of  but  176.4  registered  tonnage,  and  only  5.4 
members  of  the  crew  German  maritime  trade  by  steam 
navigation  presents  a  different  aspect,  as  the  following 
table  shows : 

Ocean-going 

Year  steamships      Regist'd  tonnage  Number  of  crew 

1871  147  81,994  4,736 

1901  1,390  1,347375  36,8oi 

1905  1,657  1,774,072  46,747 

1908  1,922  2,256,783  57,995 

1909  1,953  2,302,910  58451 
More  than  in  1871          1,806                2,221,006  53,715 

Not  only  had  the  number  of  steamships  greatly  in- 
creased, their  tonnage  had  increased  more  still,  but,  in 
proportion  to  this  increase  the  number  of  the  crew  had 
decreased.  In  1871  a  steamship  had  an  average  tonnage 
of  558  tons  and  a  crew  of  32.1  men.  In  1909  it  had  an 
average  freight  capacity  of  1230  tons  and  a  crew  of  only 
29  men. 

The  rapid  increase  of  motor  power  employed  is  an- 
other symptom  of  capitalistic  development.  In  the  terri- 
tory of  the  German  "Zollverein,"  according  to  Viebahn, 
99,761  horse-power  were  used  in  1861.*  In  1875,  in  Ger- 
many, factories  employing  more  than  five  persons,  used, 
1»°55»75°  horse-power,  and  in  1895,  2,933,526  horse- 
power, almost  three  times  the  number  used  in  1875.  Rail- 
roads, street  cars  and  steamboats  are  not  contained  in 
this  list. 

The  following  list  shows  the  amount  of  horse-power 
used  in  Prussia: 

Stationary  Movable  boilers  and 

steam  engines  traction  engines 

1879  888,000         47,000 

1896  — 2,534,900       159400 

1900  3,461,700         229,600 

1905  4,684,900       315,200 

1906  4,995,700       334400 

1907  5,190,400         363*200 

So  the  amount  of  horse-power  employed  in  Prussia  in 
1907  is  six  times  greater  than  in  1879.  How  tremendously 

*A.  Hesse— Statistics  of  Trade. 


The  State  and  Society  331 

industry  has  developed  since  the  census  of  1895  can  be 
seen  by  the  fact  that  the  number  of  stationary  engines  in 
Prussia  has  increased  by  35  per  cent,  from  1896  to  1907. 
The  productiveness  of  the  machines  has  increased  by 
105  per  cent,  during  this  period.  While,  in  1898,  3,303 
steam  engines  of  258,726  horse-power  served  to  run  dy- 
namos, there  are  6,191  of  954,945  horse-power  in  1907. 
That  is  an  increase  of  87  and  269  per  cent.*  The  follow- 
ing figures  show  the  increased  application  of  steam- 
power  in  the  most  important  industries  (expressed  in 
horsepower)  : 

Industry  1879  1897  1907 

Mining  and  foundries 516,000  1,430,000  2,284,000 

Masonry  and  bricks 29,000  132,000       255,000 

Metallurgy  23,000  57,ooo        113,000 

Machines    22,000  61,000        329,000 

Textile  88,000  243,000       323,000** 

Notwithstanding  this  fabulous  development  of  the  pro- 
ductive powers  and  the  immense  concentration  of  capi- 
tal, attempts  are  still  being  made  to  deny  these  truths. 
Such  an  attempt  was  made  at  the  eleventh  session  of  the 
International  Institute  of  Statistics  in  Copenhagen  in 
August,  1907,  by  the  French  economist,  Ives  Guyot.  On 
the  basis  of  careless  statistics,  he  moved  to  abolish  the 
word  "concentration"  from  statistics.  Among  others, 
Carl  Buecher  answered  him  as  follows:  "An  absolute  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  manufactories  may  easily  coin- 
cide with  a  concentration  of  same.  Wherever  the  census 
enumerates  individual  establishments,  it  is  unavoidable 
that  many  should  be  counted  twice.  A  bank  with  100 
trust-funds  is  counted  as  101 ;  a  brewery  that  has  opened 
and  fitted  out  50  saloons,  is  counted  as  51  establishments. 
The  results  of  such  statistics  prove  nothing  in  regard  to 
the  phenomenon  in  question.  Investigation  so  far  shows 
that  agriculture  alone  does  not  seem  to  be  subjected  to 
the  process  of  concentration.  It  is  evident  in  mining, 


*A.  Hesse — Statistics  of  Trades. 

**Prof.  Dr.  S    Reyer  Kraft — Economic,  Technical  and  Historical 
Studies  in  the  Development  of  the  Power  of  States. 


33 2  Concentration  in  Capitalistic  Industry 

commerce,  transportation,  building  trades  and  insurance. 
In  industry  it  is  difficult  to  recognize,  because  every 
civilized  nation  in  a  healthy  state  of  development  must 
present  an  extension  of  industrial  production,  for  the  fol- 
lowing four  reasons:  I.  Because  occupations  that  were 
formerly  domestic  in  character  have  been  taken  over  by 
industry  2.  Because  natural  products  have  been  re- 
placed  by  industrial  products  (wood  by  iron ;  woad,  mad- 
der and  indigo  by  tar-colors,  etc.).  3.  Because  of  new 
inventions  (automobiles).  4.  Because  of  the  possibility 
of  exportation.  For  these  reasons  concentration  on  a 
large  scale  takes  place  in  industry  without  any  diminu- 
tion in  the  number  of  establishments,  even  with  an  in- 
crease in  same.  Wherever  industry  creates  commodities 
ready  for  use  of  a  typical  character,  the  destruction  ot 
the  independent  small  concerns  is  inevitable.  The  capi- 
talistic forms  of  production  are  accordingly  rapidly  de- 
veloping in  the  most  important  lines  of  industry.  It  is 
not  wise  to  oppose  the  Socialists  where  they  are  right, 
and  they  are  undoubtedly  right  in  their  assertions  in  re- 
gard to  increasing  concentration."* 

The  same  aspect  presented  by  the  economic  develop 
merit  of  Germany  is  presented  by  all  the  industrial 
states  of  the  world.  All  the  civilized  states  endeavour  to 
become  industrial  states  more  and  more.  They  not  only 
seek  to  manufacture  articles  of  industry  to  supply  their 
own  demand,  but  also  to  export  them.  Therefore  we 
not  only  speak  of  a  national  market,  but  also  of  the 
world  market.  The  world  market  regulates  the  prices  ofc 
countless  articles  of  industry  and  agriculture  and  con- 
trols the  social  status  of  the  nations.  That  industrial 
realm  which  has  attained  the  greatest  importance  in  re- 
gard to  the  relations  of  the  world  market,  is  the  North 
American  Union.  Here  the  main  impetus  is  given 
whereby  the  world  market  and  bourgeois  society  are 
revolutionized.  The  census  of  the  last  three  decades 
showed  the  following  figures: 


*Bulletin   de   1'institut   international   de   statistique.     Copenhagen, 
1908. 


The  State  and  Society  333 

Amount  of  capital  invested  in  industry. 

1880    2,790,000,000  dollars 

1890 6,525,000,000      " 

1900  9,813,000,000 

Value  of  Industry. 

1880    5,369,000,000  dollars 

1890  9,372,000,000 

1900 13,000,000,000 

The  United  States,  accordingly,  is  the  leading  indus- 
trial country  of  the  world.  Its  exportation  of  products 
of  industry  and  agriculture  increase  with  each  year,  and 
the  tremendous  accumulations  of  capital  that  are  a  nat- 
ural result  of  this  development  seek  investment  beyond 
the  boundaries  of  the  country,  and  influence  the  industry 
and  trade  of  Europe  to  a  marked  degree.  It  is  no  longer 
the  individual  capitalist  who  is  the  motive  power  under- 
lying this  development.  It  is  the  group  of  captains  of  in- 
dustry, the  trust,  that  is  bound  to  crush  the  most  power- 
ful individual  enterprise,  wherever  it  chooses  to  turn  its 
activities.  What  can  the  small  man  amount  to  in  the 
face  of  such  development,  to  which  even  the  great  must 
yield? 

3. — Concentration  of  Wealth. 

It  is  an  economic  law  that,  with  the  concentration  of 
industry  and  its  increased  productivity,  the  number  of 
workers  employed  relatively  decreases,  while  the  wealth 
of  a  nation,  in  proportion  to  the  entire  population,  be- 
comes concentrated  in  fewer  hands.  That  can  be  clearly 
seen  by  the  distribution  of  the  income  in  various  civilized 
countries. 

Of  the  larger  German  states,  Saxony  possesses 
the  oldest  and  best  statistics  on  the  income 
tax.  The  present  law  is  in  force  since  1879. 
But  it  is  advisable  to  take  a  later  year,  because 
during  the  first  years  the  assessments  were,  on  an 
average,  too  low.  The  population  of  Saxony  in- 
creased by  51  per  cent,  from  1880  to  1905.  The  number 
of  persons  assessed  increased  by  160  per  cent,  from  1882 
to  1904;  the  assessed  income  by  23  per  cent.  Until  the 


334  Concentration  in  Capitalistic  Industry 

beginning  of  the  nineties  an  income  up  to  300  marks  per 
annum  was  exempt  from  taxation,  after  that  up  to  400 
marks.  In  1882  the  number  of  persons  exempt  from 
taxes  were  75,697=6.61  per  cent.;  in  1904,  205,667= 
11.03  Per  cent.  It  must  be  noted  that,  in  Saxony,  the  in- 
comes of  wives  and  of  members  of  the  family  under  16 
are  added  to  the  income  of  the  husband  and  father.  The 
taxpayers  having  an  income  from  400  to  800  marks 
formed  48  per  cent,  of  those  assessed  in  1882;  in  1904 
only  43.81  per  cent.  A  part  of  them  had  advanced  into  a 
class  with  a  higher  income.  The  average  income  of  the 
taxpayers  of  this  class  had  increased  by  37  per  cent — 
from  421  to  582  marks — during  this  period,  but  still  re- 
mained behind  the  average  of  600  marks.  The  taxpayers 
having  an  income  from  800  to  1250  marks  formed  12  pei 
cent,  of  those  assessed  in  1882,  and  24.38  per  cent,  in  1904. 
But  those  with  an  income  from  1250  to  3300  marks 
formed  20  per  cent,  in  1882  and  only  16.74  per  cent,  in 
1904.  In  1863  Lassalle  computed  that  only  4  per  cent,  of 
all  incomes  in  Prussia  were  over  3000  marks  annually. 
When  we  consider  that,  in  the  meantime,  rents,  taxes 
and  the  cost  of  living  have  increased,  and  that  the  de- 
mands in  regard  to  the  standard  of  living  have  grown, 
it  becomes  evident  that  the  position  of  the  masses  has 
relatively  scarcely  improved.  The  medium  incomes  of 
from  3,400  to  10,000  marks  in  1904  formed  only  3.24  per 
cent,  of  those  assessed,  and  the  incomes  of  over  10,000 
marks  less  than  i  per  cent.  The  number  of  taxpayers 
with  incomes  from  12,000  to  20,000  marks,  0.80  per  cent. 
The  number  of  incomes  of  over  12,000  marks  has  in- 
creased from  4,124,  in  1882,  to  11,771,  in  1904;  that  is,  by 
188  per  cent.  The  highest  income  in  1882  was  2,570,000 
marks;  in  1906,  5,900,600  marks.  These  figures  show  th'i 
following  facts :  The  lower  incomes  have  increased  some- 
what, but  in  many  cases  this  increase  has  been  more  than 
equalized  by  the  increased  cost  of  living.  The  middle 
classes  experienced  the  least  improvement;  but  the  num- 
ber and  the  income  of  the  richest  people  show  the  great- 
est increase.  Accordingly  the  class  extremes  became 
more  marked. 

In  his  investigations  of  the  distribution  of  income  in 
Prussia  from  1892  to  1902,  Professor  Adolf  Wagner  has 


The  State  and  Society  335 

ascertained  the  following-  facts.  He  divides  the  popula- 
tion of  Prussia  into  three  large  groups:  The  lower  group 
(lowest  up  to  420  marks;  medium,  420  to  900;  highest, 
900  to  2,100)  ;  the  middle  group  (lowest,  2,100  to  3,000; 
medium,  3,000  to  6,000 ;  highest,  6,000  to  9,500  marks)  ; 
the  upper  group  (lowest  from  9,500  to  30,500;  medium, 
30,500  to  100,000,  and  highest  over  100,000).  The  entire 
income  is  divided  almost  equally  among  these  three 
groups.  The  3.51  per  cent,  of  the  upper  group  control 
32.1  per  cent,  of  the  entire  income.  The  lower  group,  in- 
cluding the  70.66  per  cent,  of  those  exempt  from  taxation, 
also  controls  an  income  of  32.9  per  cent,  of  the  entire  in- 
come ;  and  the  middle  s^oup,  with  25.83  per  cent,  controls 
34.9  per  cent,  of  the  entire  income.  If  we  take  into  con- 
sideration only  those  incomes  that  are  subject  to  taxa- 
tion, we  find  that  all  those  having  an  income  from  900  to 
3000  marks,  who  formed  86.99  Per  cent,  of  those  enumer- 
ated in  1892,  and  88.04  Per  cent,  in  1902,  controlled  over 
half  of  the  assessable  income,  51.05  per  cent.,  in  1892,  and 
52.1  per  cent,  in  1902.  Incomes  of  over  3000  marks, 
which  formed,  respectively,  13  and  12  per  cent,  of  those 
enumerated,  controlled  about  49  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
assessable  income  in  1892  and  48  per  cent,  in  1902.  The 
average  income  of  the  small  taxpayers  throughout  Prus- 
sia amounted  to  1374  in  1892  and  to  1348  in  1902;  it  had, 
accordingly,  diminished  to  1.89  per  cent.  On  the  other 
hand  the  average  income  of  the  large  taxpayers  has  in- 
creased from  8,811  marks,  in  1892,  to  9,118  marks,  in 
1902,  or  by  3.48  per  cent.  Upon  the  upper  group,  which 
formed  only  0.5  per  cent,  of  all  those  enumerated  in  1892 
and  0.63  per  cent,  in  1902,  15.95  percent,  of  the  entire  in- 
come devolved  in  1892,  and  18.37  Per  cent,  in  1902.  The 
increase  is  slightest  with  the  lowest  arid  medium  class 
of  the  middle  group.  It  is  somewhat  greater  with  the 
highest  class  of  the  lower  group.  But  it  is  greatest  and 
increasingly  great  from  class  to  class,  with  the  highest 
class  of  the  middle  group  and  with  the  entire  upper 
group.  The  greater  the  income  of  a  group  of  those  enu- 
merated, the  richer  they  are;  the  more,  accordingly,  their 
number  relatively  increases.  The  number  of  those  hav- 
ing high  and  highest  incomes  increases,  who,  on  an  aver- 
age, also  attain  increasingly  large  incomes.  In  other 


336  Concentration  in  Capitalistic  Industry 

words,  a  growing  concentration  of  incomes  takes  place, 
not  only  among  particularly  rich  individuals,  but  among 
the  economically  high  and  highest  group  of  the  popula- 
tion, that  is  rapidly  growing  and  yet  comprises  a  rela- 
tively small  number.  "This  shows  that  the  modern 
economic  development  has  indeed  been  favorable  to  the 
entire  population  by  increasing  the  income  and  by  in- 
creasing the  number  of  members  of  each  economic-social 
class,  but  that  the  distribution  has  been  a  very  uneven 
one,  the  rich  being  mostly  favored,  then  the  lower 
classes,  and  the  middle  class  least.  It  shows,  accordingly, 
that  the  social  class  differences,  inasmuch  as  they  depend 
upon  the  size  of  the  income,  have  increased."* 

The  Prussian  income-tax  assessments  of  1908  show- 
that  there  were  104,904  taxpayers  with  an  income  of  more 
than  9,500  marks,  representing  a  total  income  of  3,123,- 
273,000  marks.  Among  these  were  3,796  with  an  income 
of  more  than  100,000  marks,  representing  a  total  income 
of  934,000,000  marks ;  77  were  enumerated  with  an  in- 
come of  more  than  a  million.  The  104,904  taxpayers,  or 
1.78  per  cent.,  with  an  income  of  more  than  9,500  marks, 
represented  the  same  total  income  as  the  3,109,540  (52.9 
per  cent.),  with  an  income  of  from  900  to  1,350  marks. 

In  Austria  about  24  per  cent,  of  the  assessed  net  in- 
come devolved  upon  approximately  12  to  13  per  cent,  of 
the  taxpayers  having  incomes  of  from  4,000  to  12,000 
crowns.  If  the  incomes  up  to  12,000  crowns  are  taken 
together,  this  group  comprises  over  97  per  cent,  of  the 
taxpayers  and  74  per  cent,  of  the  income.  The  remain- 
ing 3  per  cent,  of  the  taxpayers  control  26  per  cent,  of, 
the  assessed  income.**  The  minimum  exempt  from  tax- 
ation is  higher  in  Austria  than  in  Prussia — 1,200  crowns, 
or  1,014  marks.  The  small  taxpayers  having  an  income 
of  from  1, 200  to  4,000  crowns  formed  84.3  of  all  taxpayers 
in  1904.  The  number  of  richest  persons  having  an  in- 

*Adolf  Wagner — A  contribution  to  the  method  of  statistics  of  the 
national  income  and  national  wealth  and  further  statistic  investiga- 
tions of  the  distribution  of  the  national  income  in  Prussia,  founded 
on  the  new  income  statistics,  1892 — 1902.  Gazette  of  the  royal  Prus- 
sian bureau  of  statistics,  1904. 

**F.  L. — The  distribution  of  the  income  in  Austria.  Leipzig,  1908. 


The  State  and  Society  337 

come  of  more  than  200,000  crowns  was  255  in  1898,  and 
in  1904  it  was  307,  or  0.032  per  cent,  of  all  taxpayers. 

In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  according  to  L.  G. 
Chiozza  Money,  half  of  the  national  income  (over 
4,150,000,000  dollars)  belongs  to  one-ninth  of  the  popula- 
tion. He  divides  the  population  into  three  groups:  The 
rich,  with  an  income  of  more  than  700  pounds  sterling; 
the  wealthy,  with  an  income  of  from  160  to  700  pounds 
sterling;  and  the  poor,  with  an  income  of  less  than  160 
pounds  sterling. 

Including  Income  in 

Class  Persons  families  pounds  sterling 

Rich   250,000  1,250,000          585,000,000 

Wealthy 750,000  3,750,000  245,000,000 

Poor   5,000,000          38,000,000          880,000,000 

According  to  these  figures,  more  than  one-third  ot  the 
national  income  belongs  to  one-thirtieth  of  the  popula- 
tion. The  investigations  of  Booth  for  London,  and  of 
Rowntree  for  York,  have  shown  that  thirty  per  cent,  of 
the  entire  population  lead  an  existence  of  direst  life-long 
poverty.* 

For  France,  E.  Levasseur  compiled  the  following  fig- 
ures,  on  the  basis  of  the  statistics  of  inheritance:  "Two- 
fifths  of  the  national  wealth  are  owned  by  98  per  cent, 
having  less  than  100,000  francs ;  about  one-third  is  owned 
by  a  small  group  of  1.7  per  cent.,  and  a  quarter  of  the  en- 
tire national  wealth  belongs  to  a  wee  minority — 0.12  per 
cent."** 

All  these  figures  show  how  great  are  the  numbers  of 
the  non-possessing  masses,  and  how  thin  the  strata  of  the 
possessing  classes. 

"The  growing  inequality,"  says  G.  Schmoller,  "is  un- 
deniable. It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  distribution  of 
wealth  in  Central  Europe,  from  1300  to  1900,  became  in- 
creasingly unequal,  though  of  course  the  inequalities  va- 
ried in  the  different  countries.  Recent  development, 
with  its  growing  class  distinctions,  has  greatly  increased 
the  inequalities  in  income  and  wealth."*** 


*L'.  G.  Chiozza  Money.    Riches  and  Poverty.    London,  1908. 

**E.  Levasseur. 

***G.  Schmoller — Principles  of  Economics.    Vol.  II. 


338  Crisis  and  Competition 

This  capitalistic  process  of  development  and  concen- 
tration, that  takes  place  in  all  civilized  countries,  com- 
bined with  the  prevailing  anarchy  in  the  methods  of  pro- 
duction, that  so  far  was  unable  to  prevent  the  formation 
of  trusts,  inevitably  leads  to  overproduction  and  to  an 
overstocking  of  the  market.  We  enter  upon  the  crisis. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

CRISIS  AND  COMPETITION. 

i. — Causes  and  Effects  of  the  Crises. 

The  crisis  arises  because  no  standard  exists  whereby 
the  real  demand  for  a  commodity  may  at  any  time  be 
measured  and  ascertained.  There  is  no  power  in  bour- 
geois society  that  is  enabled  to  regulate  the  entire  pro- 
duction. In  the  first  place,  the  consumers  of  a  commodity 
are  scattered  over  a  wide  area,  and  the  purchasing  ability 
of  the  consumers,  who  determine  the  consumption,  is  in- 
fluenced by  a  number  of  causes  that  no  individual  pro- 
ducer is  able  to  control.  Moreover,  every  individual  pro- 
ducer must  compete  with  a  number  of  other  producers 
whose  productive  abilities  are  unknown  to  him.  Each  one 
seeks  to  defeat  his  competitors  by  every  means  at  his  com- 
mand :  by  a  reduction  in  prices,  by  advertising,  by  giving 
credit  for  prolonged  periods,  by  sending  out  drummers, 
and  even  by  cunningly  and  insiduously  disparaging  the 
products  of  his  competitors,  the  latter  means  being  espec- 
ially frequently  resorted  to  during  critical  times.  The  en- 
tire realm  of  production  accordingly  depends  upon  the 
subjective  discretion  of  the  individual.  Every  manufac- 
turer must  dispose  of  a  certain  quantity  of  goods  in  order 
to  subsist.  But  he  seeks  to  sell  a  far  larger  quantity,  for 
this  increased  sale  determines  not  only  his  larger  income, 
but  also  the  probability  of  his  triumphing  over  his  com- 
petitors. For  a  while  sales  are  insured,  they  even  in- 
crease ;  this  leads  to  more  extensive  enterprises  and  to  in- 
creased production.  But  good  times  and  favorable  con- 
ditions tempt  not  only  one  but  all  manufacturers  to  multi- 


The  State  and  Society  339 

ply  their  efforts.  Production  by  far  exceeds  the  demand. 
Suddenly  it  becomes  manifest  that  the  market  is  over- 
stocked with  goods.  The  sales  slacken,  the  prices  fall, 
production  is  limited.  To  limit  production  in  any  branch 
means  to  decrease  the  number  of  workers  employed  in 
this  branch,  and  a  reduction  in  wages,  whereby  the  work- 
ers in  turn  are  compelled  to  limit  their  consumption.  The 
inevitable  result  is,  that  production  and  consumption  in 
other  branches  slacken  likewise.  Small  dealers  of  all 
kinds,  shopkeepers,  bakers,  butchers,  etc.  whose  chief 
customers  are  workingmen  fail  to  dispose  of  their  goods 
and  also  suffer  want. 

The  effects  of  such  a  crisis  may  be  seen  from  the  statis- 
tics of  the  unemployed  that  were  compiled  by  the  trade- 
unions  of  Berlin  at  the  close  of  January,  1902.  In  Berlin 
and  suburban  towns  there  where  over  70,000  persons  who 
were  entirely  unemployed,  and  over  60,000  who  were 
partly  unemployed.  On  February  13,  1909,  the  trade- 
unions  of  Berlin  took  another  census  of  the  unemployed 
and  found  that  there  were  106,722  unemployed  persons 
(92,655  men  and  14,067  women).*  In  England  there  were 
750,000  unemployed  persons  during  September  1908. 
These  figures  represent  workingmen  and  women  who 
were  willing  and  eager  to  work  but  unable  to  find  work. 
The  deplorable  social  conditions  of  these  human  beings 
may  be  easily  imagined! 

Since  one  industry  furnishes  the  raw  material  to  an-' 
other  and  one  depends  upon  the  other,  the  ills  that  befall 
one  must  affect  the  others.  The  circle  of  those  affected 
widens.  Many  obligations  that  had  been  entered  upon  in 
the  hope  of  prolonged  favorable  conditions  cannot  be  met, 
and  heighten  the  crisis  that  grows  worse  from  month  to 
month.  A  heap  of  accumulated  goods,  tools  and  machines 
becomes  almost  worthless.  The  goods  are  frequently  sold 
underprice  and  this  often  leads  to  the  ruin  of  the  owners 
of  such  goods  as  well  as  to  the  ruin  of  dozens  of  others 
who  in  turn  are  compelled  to  sell  their  goods  underprice 
also.  But  even  during  the  crisis  the  methods  of  produc- 
tion are  constantly  improved  in  order  to  meet  the  in- 

*Unemployment  and  Statistics  of  the  Unemployed  in  the  Winter  of 
1908  to  1909.  Berlin,  1909. 


34°  Crisis  and  Competition 

creased  competition,  and  this  means  again  forms  a  cause 
for  new  crises.  After  a  crisis  has  lasted  for  years  and 
over-production  has  gradually  been  removed  by  selling 
the  products  underprice,  by  limiting  production  and  by 
the  ruin  of  smaller  manufacturers,  society  slowly  begins 
to  recuperate.  The  demand  increases  again,  and  prompt- 
ly the  production  increases  also,  slowly  and  carefully  at 
first,  but  more  rapidly  with  the  prolonged  duration  of 
favorable  conditions.  People  seek  to  reimburse  them- 
selves for  what  they  have  lost  and  seek  to  secure  their 
portions  before  a  new  crisis  sets  in.  But  as  all  manufac- 
turers are  guided  by  the  same  impulse,  as  they  all  seek  to 
improve  the  means  of  production  in  order  to  excel  the 
others,  a  new  catastrophe  is  ushered  in  more  rapidly  and 
with  still  more  disastrous  results.  Countless  lives  rise 
and  fall  like  bubbles,  and  this  constant  reciprocal  action 
causes  the  awful  conditions  that  we  experience  during 
every  crisis.  The  crises  become  more  frequent  as  produc- 
tion and  competition  increase,  not  only  among  individ- 
uals, but  among  entire  nations.  The  small  battle  for  cus- 
tomers, and  the  great  battle  for  markets  becomes  in- 
creasingly severe  and  is  bound  to  end  with  enormous 
losses.  Meanwhile  goods  and  supplies  are  stored  away  in 
masses,  but  countless  human  beings  who  wish  to  consume 
but  are  unable  to  buy,  suffer  hunger  and  privation. 

The  years  1901  and  1907-08  have  proven  the  correctness 
of  this  representation.  After  years  of  business  depression, 
during  which  capitalistic  development  nevertheless  con- 
tinued to  progress  uninterruptedly,  the  upward  course  set 
in,  stimulated  to  no  slight  extent  by  the  changes  and  new 
equipments  that  the  army  and  navy  required.  During 
this  period  a  tremendous  number  of  new  industrial  enter- 
prises sprang  up,  and  a  great  many  others  were  increased 
and  expanded  to  attain  the  development  made  possible  by 
their  technical  means  and  to  heiehten  their  productivity. 
But  in  the  same  way  the  number  of  enterprises  increased 
that  were  transferred  from  the  hands  of  individual  cap- 
italists to  capitalistic  associations  (stock  companies),  a 
transformation  that  is  always  accompanied  by  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the  manufactory.  Many  thousands  of  millions  of 
marks  represent  the  newly  formed  stock  companies. 


The  State  and  Society  341 

Moreover,  the  capitalists  of  all  countries  seek  to  form 
national  and  international  agreements.  Trusts  spring  up 
like  mushrooms  from  the  ground.  These  endeavour  to  de- 
termine the  prices  and  to  regulate  production  on  the  basis 
of  exact  statistical  research  to  avoid  over-production  and 
reduction  in  prices.  'Entire  branches  of  industry  have 
been  monopolized  in  this  way  to  the  advantage  of  the 
manufacturers  and  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  workers 
and  the  consumers.  Manv  believed  that  thereby  capital 
had  obtained  the  means  that  would  enable  it  to  dominate 
the  market  in  all  directions.  But  appearances  are  deceiv- 
ing. The  laws  of  capitalistic  production  prove  stronger 
than  the  most  cunning  representatives  of  the  system,  who 
believed  to  have  regulated  it.  The  crisis  came,  never- 
theless, and  it  was  seen  again  that  the  wisest  calcula- 
tion proved  faulty  and  that  bourgeois  society  cannot  es- 
cape its  fate. 

But  capitalism  continues  in  the  same  manner  since  it 
cannot  change  its  substance.  By  the  way  in  which  it  is 
bound  to  act,  it  upsets  all  laws  of  bourgeois  economics. 
Unrestricted  competition — the  alpha  and  omega  of  bour- 
geois society — is  supposed  to  place  those  most  capable 
at  the  helm  of  all  enterprises.  But  experience  shows  that 
as  a  rule  it  places  those  at  the  helm  who  are  most  shrewd 
and  cunning  and  least  troubled  by  a  conscience.  More- 
over, stock  companies  set  aside  all  individuality.  The 
trust  goes  further  still.  Here  not  only  does  the  individual 
manufacturer  cease  to  be  an  independent  person,  the 
stock  company  too  becomes  a  mere  link  in  a  chain  that  is 
controlled  by  a  board  of  capitalists  whose  main  purpose 
is  to  plunder  the  public.  A  hand  full  of  monopolists  be- 
come the  IP  asters  of  society;  these  dictate  the  prices  to 
be  paid  by  the  consumers  for  commodities,  and  to  the 
workers  their  wages  and  standard  of  living. 

This  development  shows  how  superfluous  private  enter- 
prise has  become,  and  that  production  conducted  on  a  na- 
tional and  international  scale  is  the  goal  toward  which 
society  is  bent.  The  only  difference  will  ultimately  be 
that  organized  production  and  distribution  will  benefit 
the  entire  community  instead  of  benefiting  the  capitalistic 
class  only,  as  is  the  case  to-day. 


342  Crisis  and  Competition 

The  economic  revolution  above  described,  which  is 
rapidly  driving  bourgeois  society  to  the  heights  of  its 
development,  is  constantly  intensified  by  new,  important 
events.  While  Europe  is  being  more  threatened  each 
year,  both  in  its  foreign  and  domestic  markets,  by  the 
rapidly  growing  North  American  competition,  new  en- 
emies are  arising  in  the  far  East  who  make  the  economic 
conditions  of  the  entire  world  still  more  critical. 

Competition  drives  the  capitalist  around  the  globe,  as 
the  Communist  Manifesto  expresses  it.  He  is  constantly 
seeking  new  markets,  that  is,  countries  and  nations  where 
he  can  dispose  of  his  goods  and  create  new  demands.  One 
side  of  this  endeavour  maybe  seen  from  the  fact  that  since 
a  few  decades  the  various  states  are  eagerly  engaged  in 
colonization.  Germany  was  foremost  among  these  and 
succeeded  in  taking  possession  of  large  tracts  of  land,  but 
these  possessions  are  chiefly  occupied  by  people  of  a  very 
primitive  degree  of  civilization  who  have  no  demand 
worth %speaking  of  for  European  products.  The  other  side 
of  this  endeavour  is  directed  toward  carrying  capitalistic 
civilization  to  nations  who  have  already  attained  a  higher 
degree  of  civilization,  but  who  until  recently  were  rigor- 
ously opposed  to  modern  development.  Such  are  the 
East  Indians,  the  Japanese,  and  especially  the  Chinese. 
These  are  nations  that  comprise  more  than  one  third  of 
the  entire  population  of  the  earth.  When  once  given  an 
impetus  they  are  well  able — as  the  Japanese  have  already 
demonstrated  during  the  war  with  Russia — to  develop 
the  capitalistic  method  of  production  quite  independently, 
and  to  do  so,  moreover,  under  conditions  that  will  be  ac- 
companied by  disastrous  results  to  the  more  advanced 
nations.  The  ability  and  skill  of  these  nations  is  well 
known,  but  it  is  equally  well  known  that  their  wants  are 
few — due  to  a  great  extent  to  the  warm  climate — and 
that,  when  compelled  to  do  so,  they  rapidly  adapt  them- 
selves to  changed  conditions.  Here  the  old  world,  includ- 
ing the  United  States,  is  being  confronted  by  a  new  com- 
petitor who  will  demonstrate  to  the  whole  world  that  the 
capitalistic  system  is  untenable.  In  the  meanwhile,  the 
competing  nations,  especially  the  United  States,  England 
and  Germany,  seek  to  outdo  one  another,  and  all  means 
are  resorted  to  in  order  to  obtain  the  largest  possible 


The  State  and  Society  343 

share  in  the  control  of  the  world's  market.  This  leads  to 
international  politics,  to  interference  in  all  international 
events  of  importance,  and  in  order  to  interfere  success- 
fully, the  navies  especially  are  developed  and  increased 
as  never  before,  whereby  the  danger  of  great  political 
catastrophes  is  heightened  anew.  Thus  the  political 
realm  grows  with  the  realm  of  economic  competition.  The 
contradictions  grow  on  an  international  scale,  and  in  all 
countries  that  have  undergone  a  capitalistic  development 
they  bring  forth  similar  phenomena  and  similar  struggles. 
Not  only  the  method  of  production  but  also  the  manner 
of  distribution  is  responsible  for  these  unbearable  con- 
ditions. 

2. — Intermediate  Trade  and  the  Increased  Cost  of  Living. 

In  human  society  all  individuals  are  linked  to  one  an- 
other by  a  thousand  threads  that  become  more  compli- 
cated and  interwoven  with  increasing  civilization.  When 
disturbances  occur  they  are  felt  by  all  members.  Disturb- 
ances in  production  affect  distribution  and  consumption 
and  vice  versa.  A  marked  characteristic  of  capitalistic 
production  is  the  concentration  of  the  means  of  produc- 
tion in  increasingly  large  factories.  In  distribution  the 
opposite  trait  becomes  manifest.  Whoever  has  been 
driven  by  competition  out  of  the  ranks  of  independent 
producers,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  seeks  to  win  a  place 
as  dealer  between  producer  and  consumer  to  obtain  a 
living.*  This  accounts  for  the  surprising  increase  of  per- 


*"The  decline  of  ancient  handicraft  is  not  the  only  cause  that 
accounts  for  the  great  increase  in  the  small  retail  trade.  The  grow- 
ing industrialization  and  commercialization  of  the  country  notwith- 
standing its  tendency  toward  manufacture  on  a  large  scale  always 
furnishes  new  ground  for  small  businesses.  Inventions  that  create 
new  branches  of  industry  also  cause  the  rise  of  new  small  establish- 
ments for  the  distribution  of  these  products.  But  the  main  cause  of 
the  great  increase  in  retail  trade  is, — as  expressed  in  a  report  sub- 
mitted to  the  government  of  Saxony  by  the  Dresden  chamber  of 
commerce, — that  trade  on  a  small  scale  has  become  the  rallying  place 
of  many  persons  who  despair  of  making  their  living  in  any  other 
way."  Paul  Lange— Retail  Trade  and  Middle  Class  Politics.  "New 
Era." 


344  Crisis  and  Competition 

sons  engaged  in  intermediate  trade,  dealers,  small  shop- 
keepers, hucksters,  agents,  jobbers,  etc.  as  has  been  statis- 
tically proven  in  a  previous  chapter.  Most  of  these  per- 
sons, among  whom  we  find  many  women  independently 
engaged  in  business,  lead  a  precarious  existence.  Many, 
in  order  to  subsist,  must  cater  to  the  basest  fashions  of 
their  fellow-men.  This  accounts  for  the  tremendous 
prevalence  of  advertising  especially  in  regard  to  every- 
thing in  connection  with  the  gratification  of  the  love  of 
luxury. 

Now  it  cannot  be  denied  that  in  modern  society  the  de- 
sire for  the  enjoyment  of  life  is  very  noticeable,  and  view- 
ed from  a  higher  standard  this  fact  is  gratifying.  People 
begin  to  understand  that  in  order  to  be  human  they  must 
lead  lives  worthy  of  human  beings,  and  they  seek  to  grat- 
ify this  desire  in  the  manner  in  which  they  conceive  the 
enjoyment  of  life.  In  the  display  of  wealth  society  has 
become  much  more  aristocratic  than  in  any  former  period. 
The  contrast  between  the  richest  and  the  poorest  is 
greater  than  ever.  On  the  other  hand,  society  has  become 
more  democratic  in  its  ideas  and  laws.*  The  masses  de- 
mand greater  equality,  and  since  in  their  ignorance,  they 
do  not  yet  recognize  the  means  to  achieve  true  equality, 
they  seek  it  in  trying  to  ape  these  in  superior  social  posi- 
tions and  to  obtain  every  enjoyment  within  their  reach. 
Various  stimulants  serve  to  gratify  this  desire  and  the 
results  are  frequently  detrimental.  A  desire  that  is  jus- 
tified in  itself  leads  to  devious  paths  in  many  cases;  it 
even  leads  to  crimes,  and  society  punishes  the  perpe- 
trators without  changing  matters  in  the  least. 

The  growing  number  of  persons  engaged  in  interme- 
diate trade  has  led  to  many  evils.  Though  the  persons 
thus  engaged  work  hard  and  are  frequently  burdened 
with  care,  most  of  them  form  a  class  of  parasites  who  are 
unproductive  and  live  on  the  products  of  the  labor  of 
others  as  well  as  the  employing  class.  An  increased  cost 


*In  his  first  adaption  of  Raus's  "Text  Book  of  Political  Economy," 
Professor  Adolf  Wagner  expresses  a  similar  thought.  He  says: 
'The  social  struggle  is  the  conscious  contradiction  between  the 
economic  development  and  the  social  ideal  of  freedom  and  equality 
as  expressed  in  political  life." 


The  State  and  Society  345 

of  living  is  the  inevitable  result  of  intermediate  trade.  The 
price  of  provisions  is  thereby  raised  to  such  extent  that 
they  sometimes  cost  twice  and  three  times  as  much  as  is 
obtained  by  the  producer.*  But  if  provisions  can  not  be 
raised  in  price  any  more,  because  a  further  raise  would 
limit  the  consumption,  they  are  diminished  in  quantity 
and  quality,  adulteration  of  food  and  the  use  of  incorrect 
weights  and  measures  is  resorted  to.  The  chemist  Chev- 
alier reports  that  among  various  articles  of  food  he  found 
the  following  number  of  methods  of  adulteration :  coffee, 
32 ;  wine,  30 ;  chocolate,  28 ;  flour,  24 ;  whiskey,  23 ;  bread, 
20 ;  milk,  19 ;  butter,  10 ;  olive  oil,  9 ;  sugar,  6,  etc.  A  great 
deal  of  fraud  is  practiced  in  the  grocery  stores  with  goods 
that  have  been  previously  measured  or  weighed  and  pack- 
ed. Frequently  only  12  or  14  ounces  are  sold  for  a  pound, 
and  in  this  way  the  lower  price  is  made  up  for.  Working- 
men  and  other  persons  of  small  means  suffer  most  from 
these  fraudulent  methods,  because  they  are  obliged  to  buy 
on  credit  and  must  therefore  hold  their  peace  even  where 
the  fraud  is  perfectly  evident.  In  the  bakery  trade  also 
incorrect  weight  is  frequently  resorted  to.  Swindle  and 


*In  his  book  on  "Domestic  Industry  in  Thuringia,"  Dr.  E.  Sax 
tells  us  that  in  1869  the  production  of  244%  million  slate  pencils  had 
yielded  122,000  to  200,000  florins  in  wages  to  the  workingmen, .  but 
their  final  sale  had  yielded  1,200,000  florins,  at  least  six  times  as 
much  as  the  producers  had  received.  During  the  summer  of  1888,  5 
marks  were  paid  for  5  hundred-weights  of  haddock  by  the  wholesaler. 
But  the  retailer  paid  15  marks  to  the  wholesaler,  and  the  public  paid 
the  latter  125  marks.  Large  quantities  of  food  moreover  are  destroyed 
because  the  prices  do  not  make  their  transportation  worth  while.  For 
instance,  during  years  when  the  catch  of  herrings  has  been  an  over 
abundant  one,  loads  of  them  have  been  used  as  manure,  while  there 
were  thousands  of  persons  in  the  interior  who  could  not  afford  to  buy 
herrings.  The  same  occurred  in  California  in  1892  when  the  crop  of 
potatoes  was  too  abundant.  When  in  1901  the  price  of  sugar  was 
very  low,  a  trade  paper  seriously  suggested  to  destroy  a  greater  part 
of  the  supplies  so  that  the  price  could  be  raised.  It  is  well  known 
that  Charles  Fourier  was  inspired  to  his  ideas  of  a  social  system  be- 
cause while  he  served  as  apprentice  in  a  commercial  house  in  Toulon, 
he  had  been  ordered  to  throw  a  load  of  rice  over  board  to  raise  the 
prices.  He  reasoned  that  a  society  which  resorts  to  such  barbarous 
and  irrational  methods  must  be  founded  on  a  false  basis,  and  so  he 
became  a  socialist. 


346  Crisis  and  Competition 

fraud  are  inevitably  linked  with  our  social  conditions,  and 
certain  institutions  of  the  state,  for  instance  high  indirect 
taxes  and  duties,  favor  swindle  and  fraud.  The  laws  en- 
acted against  the  adultery  of  food  accomplish  but  little. 
The  struggle  for  existence  compels  the  swindlers  to  re- 
sort to  more  cunning  methods,  and  a  thoroughgoing  and 
severe  control  rarely  exists.  Serious  control  is  also  made 
impossible  because  it  is  claimed  that  in  order  to  detect 
every  adultery,  an  expensive  and  extensive  organization 
would  be  required  and  that  legitimate  business  would  also 
be  damaged  thereby.  But  whereever  the  control  does  in- 
terfere successfully,  a  considerable  increase  in  prices  en- 
sues, because  the  low  prices  were  possible  only  by  means 
of  adulteration. 

In  order  to  diminish  these  evils  from  which  the  masses 
always  and  everywhere  suffer  most,  cooperative  stores 
have  been  established.  In  Germany  especially  army  and 
navy  stores  and  civil  service  stores  have  been  developed 
to  such  an  extent,  that  many  commercial  enterprises  were 
ruined  by  them.  But  the  workingmen's  cooperative  stores 
have  also  developed  tremendously  during  the  last  decade 
and  have  partly  even  undertaken  the  manufacture  of  cer- 
tain commodities.  The  cooperative  stores  in  Hamburg, 
Leipsic,  Dresden,  Stuttgart,  Breslau,  Vienna,  etc.,  have 
become  model  establishments  and  the  annual  sales  of  the 
German  cooperative  stores  amount  to  hundreds  of  mill- 
ions of  marks.  Since  a  few  years  the  German  cooperative 
stores  have  central  establishments  in  Hamburg  where  the 
goods  are  purchased  wholesale  on  the  largest  scale ;  this 
enables  the  various  branch  stores  to  obtain  these  goods 
at  the  lowest  possible  price.  These  cooperative  stores 
prove  that  the  scattering  methods  of  intermediate  trade 
are  superfluous.  That  is  their  greatest  advantage  beside 
the  other  advantage  that  they  furnish  reliable  goods.  The 
material  advantages  to  their  members  are  not  very  great 
nor  do  they  suffice  to  bring  about  any  marked  improve- 
ment in  their  social  status.  But  the  establishment  of 
these  cooperative  stores  proves  the  existence  of  a  wide- 
spread recognition  that  intermediate  trade  is  superfluous. 
Society  will  ultimately  achieve  an  organization  that  will 
do  away  with  commerce,  since  the  products  will  be  turned 
over  to  the  consumers  without  the  aid  of  other  interme- 


The  State  and  Society  347 

diate  agents  than  are  required  by  transportation  from  one 
place  to  another  and  by  distribution.  When  the  common 
purchase  of  food  has  been  achieved,  the  common  prepara- 
tion of  food  on  a  large  scale  appears  to  be  the  next  logical 
step.  This  again  would  lead  to  a  tremendous  saving  in 
labor  power,  space,  material  and  many  other -expenses. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
The  Revolution  in  Agriculture. 

i. — Transatlantic    Competition    and    Desertion    of    the 

Country. 

The  economic  revolution  in  industry  and  trade  has  also 
largely  affected  agricultural  conditions.  The  commercial 
and  industrial  crises  affect  the  rural  population  likewise. 
Hundreds  of  thousands  of  members  of  the  families  of 
farmers  are  temporarily  or  permanently  employed  in  in- 
dustrial establishments  of  various  kinds.  This  manner  of 
employment  constantly  expands,  firstly,  because  the  great 
number  of  small  farmers  do  not  have  enough  work  on 
their  own  farms  to  keep  themselves  and  the  members  of 
their  families  usefully  employed,  and,  secondly,  because 
the  large  farmers  find  it  profitable  to  have  an  important 
portion  of  the  products  of  their  soil  transformed  into  in- 
dustrial commodities  right  on  their  own  farms.  In  this 
manner  they  save  the  heavy  expense  of  shipping  the  raw 
material,  for  instance,  potatoes  and  grain  for  the  manu- 
facture of  alcohol,  beets  for  sugar,  cereals  for  flour  or  for 
brewing  beer,  etc.  They,  furthermore,  are  enabled  to 
establish  a  mutual  relation  between  agricultural  and  in- 
dustrial production  and  can  employ  the  labor  power  on 
hand  to  better  advantage.  The  wages  are  lower  and  the 
workers  are  more  willing  too  than  those  in  cities  and  in- 
dustrial centers.  Expenses  of  buildings  and  rents  as  well 
as  taxes  are  considerably  lower  too,  for  the  large  land 
owners  in  the  rural  districts  are  both  the  makers  and 
executors  of  the  law;  they  furnish  many  representatives 
from  their  midst  and  control  the  administration  and  po- 
lice force.  That  is  why  the  number  of  factories  in  the 


348  The  Revolution  in  Agriculture 

country  increases  each  year.  Agriculture  and  industry 
are  becoming  more  and  more  closely  linked,  and  the  large 
agricultural  establishments  mainly  profit  from  this  fact. 

The  capitalistic  development  that  the  large  estates 
have  undergone,  in  Germany  as  elsewhere,  has  created 
conditions  similar  to  those  in  England  and  the  United 
States.  We  no  longer  meet  with  those  ideal  conditions 
in  the  country  that  still  existed  a  few  decades  ago.  Mod- 
ern civilization  has  gradually  taken  possession  of  the 
country,  too,  in  the  remotest  places  even.  Militarism  es- 
pecially has  unintentionally  exercised  a  revolutionary  in- 
Ifiuence.  The  great  increase  in  the  standing  army  has 
made  itself  especially  severely  felt  in  the  open  country. 
A  great  portion  of  the  troops  for  the  standing  army  is 
drawn  from  the  rural  population.  But  when  the  peas- 
ant's son,  or  day  laborer  or  farm-hand,  returns  to  the 
country,  after  an  absence  of  two  or  three  years,  from  the 
city  and  the  barracks,  where  the  atmosphere  has  not  been 
an  exactly  moral  one,  he  has  become  acquainted  with 
many  new  ideas  and  requirements  of  civilization  that  he 
seeks  to  satisfy  at  home  as  he  did  away  from  home.  To 
make  this  possible  his  first  demand  is  for  higher  wages. 
The  old  modesty  and  contentedness  have  been  shattered 
in  the  city.  In  many  cases  he  prefers  to  stay  away  from 
the  country  altogether,  and  all  endeavours,  supported  by 
the  military  authorities,  to  lead  him  back,  remain  unsuc- 
cessful. Improved  means  of  traffic  and  communication 
also  tend  to  raise  the  standard  of  requirements  in  the 
country.  By  his  associations  with  the  city  the  farmer 
becomes  acquainted  with  the  world  in  an  entirely  new 
and  tempting  way;  he  is  influenced  by  ideas  and  learns 
of  requirements  of  civilization  that  have  been  entirely 
•foreign  to  him  until  then.  That  causes  him  to  become 
dissatisfied  with  his  position.  The  increased  demands 
made  upon  the  population  by  state,  county,  community, 
etc.,  effect  the  peasant  as  well  as  the  rural  worker  and 
make  them  more  rebellious  still.  To  this  other  most  im- 
portant factors  must  be  added. 

European  agriculture,  and  especially  German  agricul- 
ture, has  entered  upon  a  new  phase  of  its  development 
since  the  close  of  the  seventies  of  the  last  century. 


The  State  and  Society  349 

While,  until  then,  the  nations  depended  upon  the  farm 
products  of  their  own  agriculture,  or,  as  England,  upon 
that  of  the  neighboring  countries — France  and  Germany 
— the  situation  now  began  to  change.  As  a  result  of  the 
tremendously  improved  means  of  transportation — navi- 
gation and  the  construction  of  railways  in  North  Amer-- 
ica — provisions  began  to  be  shipped  from  there  to  Eu- 
rope and  lowered  the  prices  of  grain,  so  that  cultivation 
of  the  chief  kinds  of  grain  in  Middle  and  Western  Eu- 
rope became  far  less  profitable,  unless  the  entire  con- 
ditions of  production  could  be  changed.  Moreover,  the 
realm  of  international  grain  production  greatly  expanded. 
Besides  Russia  and  Roumania,  who  made  every  endea- 
vour to  increase  their  export  of  grain,  products  from  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  Australia,  India  and  Canada  appeared 
upon  the  market.  In  the  course  of  development  another 
unfavorable  factor  was  added.  Influenced  by  the  causes 
above  enumerated,  the  small  farmers  and  rural  workers 
began  to  desert  the  country.  They  either  emigrated  be- 
yond the  seas  or  scores  of  them  moved  from  the  country 
to  the  cities  and  industrial  centers,  so  that  labor  power 
in  the  country  became  scarce.  The  antiquated,  patriar- 
chal conditions,  especially  in  Eastern  Europe,  the  ill- 
treatment  and  almost  servile  status  of  the  farm-hands 
and  servants  still  heightened  this  desertion  of  the  coun- 
try. To  what  extent  this  shifting  of  the  population  has 
effected  the  rural  districts  from  184.0  until  the  census  of 
1905,  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  during  this  period 
the  Prussian  provinces — East-Prussia,  West  Prussia,  Po- 
merania,  Posen,  Silesia,  Saxony  and  Hannover — lost 
4,049,200  persons,  and  Bavaria,  Wurtemberg,  Baden  and 
Alsace-Lorraine  had  a  loss  of  2,026,500,  while  Berlin  in- 
creased by  migration  by  about  1,000,000  persons,  Ham- 
burg by  402,000,  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  by  326,200,  the 
Rhine  provinces  by  343,000,  and  W'estphalia  by  246,100.* 

2. — Peasants  and  Great  Landowners. 

As  a  result  of  all  these  changes,  agriculture  began  to 
suffer  from  a  want  of  capital.     Accordingly  the  former 


^Quarterly  Gazette  for  Statistics  of  the  German  Empire. 


35°  The  Revolution  in  Agriculture 

line  of  development,  whereby  the  great  landowner 
bought  up  the  small  and  medium-sized  farmers  and  made 
them  part  of  his  property,  gave  way  to  the  opposite 
tendency.  But  this  pressure  also  brought  about,  that  the 
clumsy  character  of  agricultural  enterprises  was  gradu- 
ally modified,  because  people  recognized  that  it  would  no 
longer  do  to  follow  the  beaten  path,  but  that  it  had  be- 
come necessary  to  adopt  new  methods.  The  national  gov- 
ernment, as  well  as  the  state  governments,  endeavored  to 
relieve  agriculture  from  its  exigency  by  appropriate 
trade  and  tariff  policies  and  by  direct  expenditures  for 
various  improvements.  Recently  the  medium  and  great 
landowners  are  quite  successful  again  wherever  the 
farms  are  conducted  in  keeping  with  modern  technical 
development,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that 
the  prices  of  farms  have  greatly  increased. 

If  agriculture  is  to  prosper  in  capitalistic  society,  it  is 
necessary  that  it  should  be  conducted  by  capitalistic 
methods.  Here,  as  in  industry,  it  is  important  that  hu- 
man labor  should  be  replaced  or  aided  by  machinery  and 
technical  improvements.  That  this  is  being  done  may  be 
seen  from  the  following:  During  the  period  from  1882 
to  1895  the  number  of  steam-ploughs  employed  in  agri- 
culture in  Germany  has  increased  from  836  to  1696,  and 
the  number  of  steam-threshing  machines  has  increased 
frorn  75,690  to  259,364.  Compared  to  what  might  be 
done  in  the  way  of  agricultural  machinery,  these  figures 
are  still  exceedingly  low  and  prove  the  undeveloped 
state  of  agriculture;  they  also  prove  that  lack  of  means 
and  the  small  size  of  the  individual  farms  have  so  far 
made  the  application  of  machinery  impossible.  The  ma- 
chine, in  order  to  be  truly  advantageous,  requires  appli- 
cation on  a  large  area  of  land  devoted  to  cultivation  of 
the  same  kind  of  crop.  The  great  number  of  small  and 
medium-sized  farms,  the  scattered  fields  and  the  great 
variety  of  crops  have  prevented  a  successful  application 
of  machinery.  The  tables  on  page  351  show  how  the 
farming  area  is  distributed  in  the  German  Empire.* 

*Karl  Kautsky — The  Agrarian  question  and  temporary  results  of 
the  agricultural  census  of  June  12,  1901.  Quarterly  Gazette  for 
Statistics  of  the  German  Empire,  1909. 


The  State  and  Society 


35i 


Among  the  5,736,082  farms  counted  in  1907  there  were 
no  less  than  4,384,786  of  less  than  $  hectares— 76.8  per 
cent.,  that  can  furnish  but  a  poor  existence  to  their  own- 
ers, unless  the  soil  is  particularly  good,  or  unless  de- 
voted to  horticulture.  A  great  many  of  them  could  not 
even  be  used  in  this  way,  since  there  are  2,731,055  farms 
among  them  of  one  hectare,  and  less,  in  area. 


Farms 

Number  of  Farms 

Increase  or  Decrease 

1882  . 

1895 

1907 

From  1882 
to  1895 

From  1895 
toigoy 

Less  than 
2  hectares 
2  to     5  ha. 

5  "    20  « 

20    "   100    " 

Over  loo  " 

3,061,831 
981,407 
926,605 
281,510 
24,991 

3,236,367 
1,016,318 
998,804 
281,767 
25,061 

3,378.509 
1,006,277 
1,065,539 
262,191 
23,566 

+  174,536 
+     34,9H 
+     72,199 
257 

+              70 

+  142,142 
—     10,041 
+    66,735 
—    19,576 
—      1,495 

5,276,344!  5.558,317!  5,736,082!  +  281,973  I  -f  177.765 


Farms 

Farming  area  in  hectares 

Increase  or  Decrease 

1882 

1895 

1907 

From  1882 
to  1895 

From  1895 
to  1907 

Less  than 
2  hectares 
2  to      5  ha. 
5  "    20  " 

20    "   100    " 

Over  loo  " 

1,825.938 
3,190,203 
9,158,398 
9,908,170 
7,786,263 

1,808,444 

3,285,984 
9,721,875 
9,869,837 
7,831,801 

1,731,317 
3,304,872 
10,421,565 
9,322,106 
7,055,013 

-        17,494 
+     95,78l 
+  568,477 
—     38,333 
+     45,538 

—     77,127 
+     18,888 
-f  699,690 

—  547,731 
-  776,788 

|3i,868,972l32,5i7,94i;3i,834,873|  +  648,969  I  —683,068 

But  even  among  the  farms  of  more  than  5  hectares 
there  are  many  that  yield  only  a  poor  product,  notwith- 
standing hard  and  long  labor,  owing  to  poor  soil,  unfa- 
vorable climate,  bad  location,  lack  of  proper  means  of 
transportation,  etc.  It  may  be  said  without  exaggera- 
tion that  fully  nine-tenths  of  the  farmers  lack  the  means 
and  the  knowledge  to  cultivate  their  soil  as  it  might  be 
cultivated.  Neither  do  the  small  peasants  receive  a  fair 
price  for  their  products,  since  they  depend  upon  the  in- 
termediate trader.  The  dealer  who  traverses  the  coun- 


352  The  Revolution  in  Agriculture 

try  on  definite  days  or  in  definite  seasons  and  usually 
trades  off  his  merchandise  to  other  dealers  again,  must 
obtain  his  profit.  But  to  gather  in  the  many  small  quan- 
tities means  much  more  trouble  to  him  than  to  procure 
a  large  quantity  irom  a  great  landowner.  The  peasants 
owning  small  and  medium-sized  farms  therefore  receive 
less  for  their  products  than  the  great  landowners,  and  if 
their  products  are  of  inferior  quality,  which  is  frequently 
the  case  owing  to  their  primitive  methods,  they  must 
accept  almost  any  price.  Sometimes  they  cannot  even 
wait  for  the  time  when  their  product  will  bring  the  high- 
est price.  They  owe  money  on  rent,  interest  and  taxes , 
they  must  repay  loans,  or  must  settle  bills  with  trades- 
people and  mechanics,  therefore  they  are  obliged  to  sell 
no  matter  how  unfavorable  the  time  may  be.  In  order 
to  improve  their  property,  or  to  satisfy  joint-heirs  or 
children  they  have  mortgaged  their  farms.  As  they  have 
few  lenders  to  choose  from,  the  conditions  are  not  very 
favorable.  A  high  rate  of  interest  and  definite  dates  of 
payment  weigh  heavily  on  them.  A  poor  harvest  or  a 
faulty  speculation  in  regard  to  the  kind  of  product  that 
they  expected  to  sell  at  a  good  price  often  drive  them 
to  the  verge  of  ruin.  Sometimes  the  products  are  bought 
and  the  capital  is  loaned  by  one  and  the  same  person,  and 
in  that  event  the  peasant  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  his 
creditor.  In  this  manner  the  peasants  of  entire  villages 
and  districts  are  sometimes  in  the  hands  of  a  few  credit- 
ors. This  is  the  case  with  the  peasants  who  raise  hops, 
wine,  tobacco,  and  vegetables  in  Southern  Germany,  and 
on  the  Rhine,  and  with  small  farmers  in  Central  Ger- 
many. The  creditor  fleeces  the  peasants  mercilessly.  He 
allows  them  to  remain  on  their  farms  as  apparent  own- 
ers, but  as  a  matter  of  fact  they  no  longer  own  them. 
Frequently  the  capitalistic  exploiter  finds  this  method 
far  more  profitable  than  to  cultivate  the  land  himself,  or 
to  sell  it.  In  this  manner  thousands  of  peasants  are  re- 
corded as  owners  of  farms  who  are  virtually  not  the  own- 
ers. As  a  matter  of  fact,  many  great  landowners,  too, 
who  managed  badly  or  were  unfortunate  or  took  the 
property  under  unfavorable  conditions,  fell  victims  to 
capitalistic  extortioners.  The  capitalist  becomes  master 


The  State  and  Society  353 

of  the  soil,  and,  in  order  to  increase  his  profits,  he  divides 
up  the  farm  into  lots,  because  in  this  way  he  can  obtain 
a  far  higher  price  than  if  he  sold  it  undivided.  With  a 
number  of  small  proprietors  he  furthermore  has  the  best 
prospect  to  continue  his  usurious  trade.  As  is  well 
known,  in  the  city,  too,  those  houses  yield  the  highest 
rents  that  contain  the  largest  number  of  small  apart- 
ments. A  small  number  of  farmers  take  the  opportunity 
and  buy  portions  of  the  divided  estate.  The  capitalistic 
benefactor  is  willing  to  turn  over  larger  portions  to  them 
also  upon  a  small  payment.  The  remainder  of  the  price 
he  takes  as  mortgage  at  a  high  rate  of  interest,  and  there 
the  difficulty  begins.  If  the  small  farmer  is  fortunate 
and  succeeds  in  making  his  farm  pay  he  escapes ;  other- 
wise his  lot  will  be  as  described  above.  If  the  small 
farmer  loses  some  of  his  cattle,  that  is  a  great  misfortune 
for  him ;  if  he  has  a  daughter  who  marries,  the  purchase 
of  her  outfit  increases  his  debts  and  he  loses  a  cheap 
labor  power ;  if  a  son  marries,  the  latter  demands  his 
share  of  the  farm,  or  a  payment  in  money.  Frequently 
he  cannot  afford  even  necessary  improvements.  If  his 
stock  does  not  provide  sufficient  manure — as  is  often  the 
case — his  soil  becomes  poorer  in  quality,  because  he  can- 
not afford  to  buy  manure.  Sometimes  he  is  too  poor  to 
buy  good  seed  even ;  the  use  of  machinery  is  denied  him, 
and  a  change  of  crop  adapted  to  the  chemical  nature  of 
his  soil  is  frequently  unfeasible.  Neither  can  he  apply 
advantageous  methods  offered  by  science  and  experience 
in  the  improvement  of  his  stock.  Lack  of  proper  fodder, 
lack  of  proper  stalls,  lack  of  other  necessary  appliances, 
prevents  it.  So  there  are  many  causes  that  make  exist- 
ence difficult  to  the  small  farmer. 

It  is  quite  different  with  the  large  estates,  where  a  com- 
paratively small  number  of  farms  cover  a  large  area.  We 
see  from  the  statistics  that  23,566  farms,  having  an  area 
of  7,055,013  hectares  of  cultivated  soil,  cover  2,019,824 
hectares  more  than  the  4,384,786  farms  having  an  area 
of  less  than  five  hectares.  But  the  numbers  of  the  farms 
and  the  numbers  of  the  owners  do  not  coincide.  In  1895 
there  were  no  less  than  912,959  leased  farms  of  all  sizes, 
1,694,251  farms  that  were  partly  owned  and  partly  leased, 


354  The  Revolution  in  Agriculture 

and  983,917  farms  that  were  cultivated  in  different  ways, 
as  farms  loaned  to  officials,  as  part  of  communal  prop- 
erty, etc.  On  the  other  hand,  single  individuals  own  a. 
number  of  agricultural  estates.  The  greatest  German 
landowner  is  the  King  of  Prussia,  who  owns  83  estates, 
with  an  area  of  98,746  hectares;  other  great  German 
landowners  are: 

Prince  of  Pless owning  75  estates  of  70,170  hectares 

Prince    Hohenzollern-Sigmar "      24       "      "    59,968      " 

Duke   of  Ujest "      52       "      "   39,742      " 

Prince  Hohenlohe-Oehringen "      —       39,365      '' 

Prince  of  Ratibor "      51       "      "   33,096      " 

In  1895  the  entailed  estates  in  Prussia  comprised  an 
area  of  2,121,636  hectares,  or  6.09  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
area  of  the  land.  The  1045  entailed  estates  were  owned 
by  939  proprietors,  and  their  common  property  was  by 
206,600  hectares  larger  than  the  entire  Kingdom  of  Wur- 
temberg,  which  covers  an  area  of  about  1,915,000  hec- 
tares. The  large  landowners  are  naturally  interested  in 
maintaining  the  present  conditions.  Not  so  the  small 
proprietors,  who  would  draw  great  advantages  from  a 
rational  transformation  of  the  conditions.  It  is  an  innate 
characteristic  of  large  ownership  of  land  that  it  seeks  to 
enlarge  its  possessions  more  and  more,  and  to  take  pos- 
session of  all  the  farms  within  reach.  It  is  so  in  Silesia, 
Lausitz,  the  Dukedom  of  Hessia  and  in  ohter  districts 
from  which  purchases  of  peasants*  estates  on  a  large 
scale  are  frequently  reported. 

In  Austria  the  large  estates  predominate  far  more  than 
in  Germany,  or  particularly  in  Prusia.  Here,  besides  the 
nobility  and  the  bourgeoisie,  the  Catholic  Church  has 
succeeded  in  taking  possession  of  a  lion's  share  of  the 
soil.  The  expropriation  of  peasants  is  in  full  swing  in 
Austria  also.  In  Styria,  Tyrol,  Salzburg.  Upper  and 
Lower  Austria,  etc.,  all  means  are  applied  to  drive  the 
peasants  from  their  native  soil  and  to  turn  their  farms 
into  gentlemen's  estates.  The  same  scenes  that  were  at 
one  time  enacted  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  may  now  be  ob- 
served in  the  most  picturesque  parts  of  Austria.  Indi- 
viduals, as  well  as.  societies,  purchase  enormous  tracts  of 
land,  or  rent  what  they  cannot  purchase,  and  transform 


The  State  and  Society  355 

them  into  hunting  grounds.  Trespassing  on  the  valleys, 
hills  and  hamlets  is  prohibited  by  the  new  masters,  and 
the  stubborn  proprietors  of  some  estates,  who  refuse  to 
comply  with  the  demands  of  the  gentlemen,  are  annoyed 
so  long  in  various  ways  that  they  yield  and  sell  their 
property.  Soil  that  has  been  cultivated  for  ages,  where 
for  thousands  of  years  many  generations  made  a  living, 
are  transformed  into  a  wilderness  where  deer  may  roam 
about,  and  the  mountains  that  have  been  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  the  capitalistic  nobility  or  bourgeoisie  are  the 
hunting  grounds  of  the  chamois.  Poverty  spreads  over 
entire  communities  because  they  are  denied  the  right  of 
driving  their  cattle  on  the  Alpine  pastures.  And  who 
are  these  persons  who  are  robbing  the  peasant  of  his 
property  and  his  independence?  Besides  Rothschild  and 
Baron  Meyer-Melnhof,  the  Counts  of  Coburg  and  Mein- 
ingen,  Prince  Hohenlohe,  the  Duke  of  Liechtenstein,  the 
Count  of  Braganza,  the  Duchess  Rosenberg,  the  Duke  of 
Pless,  the  Counts  Schoenfeld,  Festetics,  Schafgotsch, 
Trauttmannsdorff,  the  Baron  Gustaedt  Hunting  Club, 
the  Count  Karoly  Hunting  Club,  the  Noblemen's  Hunt- 
ing Club  of  Bluehnbach,  etc.  Everywhere  the  great 
landowners  are  extending  their  property.  In  1875  there 
were  only  9  persons  in  Lower  Austria  who  owned  more 
than  5000  yokes  each,  with  an  area  of  89,490  hectares ;  in 
1895  there  were  24  persons  who  owned  an  area  of  213,574 
hectares.  Throughout  Austria  the  great  landowners  con- 
trol an  area  of  8,700,000  hectares,  while  21,300,000  hec- 
tares belong  to  the  small  landowners.  The  proprietors 
of  entailed  estates,  297  families,  own  1,200,000  hectares. 
Millions  of  small  landowners  cultivate  71  per  cent,  of 
the  entire  area,  while  a  few  thousand  great  landowners 
control  more  than  29  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area  of 
Austria.  There  are  few  land-revenue  districts  in  which 
there  are  no  great  landed  proprietors.  In  most  of  the 
districts  there  are  two  or  several  landowners  who  exert 
a  determining  political  and  social  influence.  Almost  half 
of  the  great  landowners  hold  property  in  several  dis- 
tricts of  the  country,  a  number  of  them  in  several  crown- 
lands  of  the  empire.  In  Lower  Austria,  Bohemia,  Mo- 
ravia, and  Silesia  there  is  no  district  without  them.  Only 
industry  succeeded  in  dislodging  them  to  some  extent ; 


356  The  Revolution  in  Agriculture 

for  instance,  in  Northern  Bohemia  and  at  the  boundary 
of  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  In  all  other  parts  of  the  coun- 
try the  large  estates  are  increasing:  In  Upper  Austria, 
where,  of  all  crown-lands,  we  still  find  a  class  of  peasants 
that  is  fairly  well  off;  in  Goerz  and  Gradiaska,  in  Styria, 
Salzburg,  in  Galicia  and  Bukovina.  They  are  increasing 
less  rapidly  in  those  countries  that  already  are  the  do- 
mains of  the  great  landowners — Bohemia,,  Moravia,  Si- 
lesia and  Lower  Austria.  In  Lower  Austria,  of  the  en- 
tire ground  comprising  1,982,300  hectares,  393  great  land- 
owners owned  540,655  hectares,  and  the  Church  owned 
79,181  hectares;  13  estates  comprise  425,079  hectares=  9 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  area;  among  these,  Duke  Hoyos- 
Sprinzenstein  owns  33,124  hectares.  The  area  of  Mora- 
via covers  2,181,220  hectares.  Of  these  the  Church 
owned  81,857  hectares,  and  116  estates  of  more  than  1000 
hectares  each  comprised  a  larger  area  than  the  500,000 
estates  up  to  10  hectares,  that  form  92.1  per  cent,  of  all 
estates.  The  area  of  Austrian  Silesia  covers  514,677 
hectares.  Of  these  the  Church  owned  50,845  hectares, 
and  79  proprietors  together  owned  204,118  hectares.  Bo- 
hemia, with  an  area  of  5,194,500  hectares,  has  about  i,- 
237>o85  great  landowners.  The  distribution  of  property 
is  characterized  by  an  unusual  number  of  estates  of 
smallest  dimensions,  and  by  extensive  large  estates.  Al- 
most 43  per  cent,  of  all  the  estates  are  smaller  than  y?. 
hectare,  and  more  than  four-fifths  do  not  exceed  5  hec- 
tares. These  703,577  estates  (81  per  cent.)  only  cover 
12.5  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  Bohemia.  On  the  other 
hand,  776  persons  own  35.6  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area, 
while  they  only  form  o.i  per  cent,  of  all  estates.  The 
unequal  distribution  of  property  is  more  striking  still 
when  we  analyze  the  larger  class,  those  over  200  hec- 
tares. We  then  obtain  the  following  result : 

380  persons  own  each  200  to  500  hectares .  .together  1 16,143  hectares 
141  "  "  "  500  "  1000  "  . .  "  101,748  " 

104        "         "       "    looo  "2000        "      ..       "  150,567      " 

151        "         "       "    over     2000        "       ..       "        1,436,084      " 

Of  the  last-named  group,  31  persons  own  5,000  to  10,- 
ooo  hectares  each ;  21  persons  own  10,000  to  20,000  hec- 
tares each,  and  tfie  Princes  Mor.  Lobkowitz,  Ferdinand 


The  State  and  Society  357 

Kinsky,  Karl  Schwarzenberg,  Alfred  Windischgraatz, 
the  Dukes  Ernst  Waldstein,  Johann  Harrach,  Karl 
Btiquoy  own  20,000  to  30,000  hectares  each.  Clam-Gal- 
las  and  Lar.  Czernin  own  over  30,000  each.  The  Prince 
of  Lichtenstein  owns  36,189  hectares;  Prince  Max  Egon 
Fuerstenberg,  39,162  hectares;  Prince  Colloredo  Manns- 
feld,  57,691  hectares,  and  the  Prince  of  Schwarzenberg, 
177,310  hectares=34  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area  of  Bo- 
hemia. The  Church  owns  150,395  hectares=3  per  cent, 
of  the  area  of  Bohemia.*  These  figures  were  compiled 
in  1896;  since  then  matters  have  grown  still  worse.  Ac- 
cording to  the  agricultural  census  of  1902  there  were 
18,437  estates  (0.7  per  cent,  of  the  entire  number)  that 
covered  9,929,920  hectares,  or  one-third  of  the  entire 
area.  In  the  district  of  Schwaz  seven  Alps  and  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Zell  sixteen  Alps  that  had  hitherto  served  as  pas- 
tures to  the  cattle,  were  shut  off  by  the  new  landlords 
and  transformed  into  hunting  grounds.  Pasturing  of 
cattle  is  prohibited  along  the  entire  Karwendel  range. 
The  leading  nobility  of  Austria  and  Germany,  besides 
rich  bourgeois  parvenus,  purchased  areas  up  to  70,000 
yokes,  and  more,  in  the  Alpine  regions  and  had  them 
fenced  in  as  game  preserves.  Entire  villages,  hundreds 
of  farms  disappear,  the  inhabitants  are  driven  from  their 
native  soil,  and  the  place  of  human  beings  and  of  ani- 
mals intended  for  human  food,  is  taken  by  deer  and  stags 
and  chamois.  Not  a  few  of  these  men  who  have  devas- 
tated entire  provinces  in  this  manner,  afterwards  speak 
on  the  needy  condition  of  the  peasants  in  the  parliaments, 
and  abuse  their  power  to  employ  the  aid  of  the  state  in 
the  form  of  taxes  on  grain,  wood,  live  stock,  meat,  whis- 
key, etc.,  at  the  expense  of  the  propertyless  classes. 

In  the  most  advanced  industrial  states  it  is  not  the  love 
of  luxury  of  the  privileged  classes  that  dislodges  the 
small  estates,  as  is  the  case  in  Austria.  Here  the  in- 
creasing demands  of  a  rapidly  growing  population  make 
it  necessary  to  organize  farming  along  capitalistic  lines, 
in  order  to  produce  the  required  amount  of  food.  This 
may  be  observed  in  a  country  so  highly  developed  indus- 

*The  Propertied  and  Propertyless  Classes  in  Austria.— T.  W.  Tei- 
fen.    Vienna,  1906. 


358  The  Revolution  in  Agriculture 

trially  as  Belgium.  According  to  the  "Annual  Statistics," 
quoted  by  Emile  Vandervelde  in  an  article,  "Landed 
Property  in  Belgium  During  the  Period  from  1834  to 
1899,"  it  says:  "Only  farms  of  less  than  5  hectares,  and 
especially  those  of  less  than  2  hectares,  have  diminished 
in  number.  But  the  farms  of  more  than  10  hectares  have 
increased  to  3,789.  The  concentration  of  landed  prop- 
erty that  is  in  keeping  with  modern  industry  and  cattle 
breeding  on  a  large  scale,  may  here  be  clearly  observed. 
Since  1880  a  development  has  set  in  that  takes  the  op- 
posite course  of  the  one  that  took  place  from  1866  to 
1880.  While,  in  1880,  there  still  were  910,396  farms,  only 
829,625  remained  in  1895 ;  that  means  a  decrease  by  80,- 
771  farms=9  per  cent.,  in  fifteen  years.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  this  decrease  has  affected  only  farms  of  less  than  5 
hectares.  On  the  other  hand,  farms  of  from  5  to  10  hec- 
tares increased  by  675  ;  those  of  from  10  to  20  hectares  by 
2,168;  from  20  to  30  hectares  by  414;  from  30  to  40  hec- 
tares by  164,  from  40  to  50  hectares  by  187,  and  those  of 
over  50  hectares  by  181." 

3.— The  Contrast  Between  City  and  Country. 

The  condition  of  the  soil  and  its  cultivation  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  the  advancement  of  our  civiliza- 
tion. The  existence  of  the  population  primarily  depends 
upon  the  soil  and  its,  products.  The  soil  cannot  be  in- 
creased at  will ;  the  manner  of  its  cultivation  is  therefore 
the  more  important.  The  population  of  Germany,  which 
grows  by  about  870,000  persons  annually,  requires  a  con- 
siderable import  of  bread  and  meat,  if  the  prices  of  the 
most  necessary  articles  of  food  are  still  to  be  within 
reach  of  the  masses.  But  here  we  are  confronted  by 
sharp-contrasting  interests  between  the  agricultural  and 
industrial  population.  That  part  of  the  population  that 
is  not  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits,  is  interested  in 
obtaining  articles  of  food  at  low  prices,  since  their  well- 
fare,  both  as  human  beings  and  as  individuals  engaged 
in  industry  and  commerce,  depends  upon  it.  (Every  in- 
crease in  the  cost  of  articles  of  food  leads  to  a  deteriora- 
tion in  the  standard  of  living  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
population,  unless  the  wages  of  the  population  depend- 


The  State  and  Society  359 

ing  upon  agricultural  products  should  be  raised  also.  But 
an  increase  in  wages  usually  implies  an  increase  in  the 
prices  of  industrial  products,  and  that  may  result  in  a 
decline  of  sales.  But  if  wages  remain  stationary,  not- 
withstanding the  increased  cost  of  articles  of  food,  the 
purchase  of  other  commodities  must  be  limited,  and  again 
industry  and  commerce  suffer. 

Matters  have  a  different  aspect  for  those  engaged  in 
agriculture.  Just  as  persons  engaged  in  industry,  they 
seek  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible  advantage  from  their 
occupation,  and  it  does  not  matter  to  them  from  which 
particular  product  they  obtain  it.  If  the  import  of  for- 
eign grain  prevents  their  obtaining  the  desired  profit 
from  the  cultivation  of  grain,  they  devote  their  soil  to 
the  cultivation  of  other  products  that  are  more  profitable. 
They  cultivate  beets  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  and 
potatoes  and  grain  for  the  manufacture  01  whiskey,  in- 
stead of  wheat  and  rye  for  bread.  They  devote  the  most 
fertile  fields  to  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  instead  of  to 
the  cultivation  of  vegetables  and  fruit.  Others  use  thou- 
sands of  hectares  of  land  for  pastures  for  horses,  because 
horses  bring  high  prices  for  military  purposes.  More- 
over, great  stretches  of  forest  land,  which  could  be  em- 
ployed for  agricultural  purposes,  are  reserved  as  hunting^ 
grounds  for  sportsmen  of  rank.  This  is  sometimes  the 
case  in  regions  where  a  few  thousand  hectares  of  forests 
might  be  cut  down  and  transformed  into  fields,  without 
any  harmful  results  ensuing,  due  to  a  decrease  in  humid- 
itty  by  the  cutting  down  of  the  forest.  In  this  manner 
thousands  of  square  miles  of  fertile  soil  might  still  be 
won  for  agricultural  purposes  in  Germany.  But  this 
transformation  is  contrary  to  the  material  interests  of  a 
part  of  the  bureaucracy,  the  forest-  and  game-keepers,  as 
well  as  to  the  interests  of  the  great  landowners,  who  do 
not  wish  to  give  up  their  hunting-grounds  and  to  deny 
themselves  the  pleasures  of  the  chase.  It  is  a  matter  of 
course  that  such  clearing  of  forests  could  take  place  only 
where  it  would  be  truly  advantageous.  On  the  other 
hand,  large  areas  of  mountain  and  waste  land  might  bt 
planted  with  forests. 

Recently  the  great  influence  of  forests  on  the  forma- 
tion of  moisture  has  been  denied,  as  it  appears,  unjustly 


360  The  Revolution  in  Agriculture 

so.  To  what  marked  degree  the  forest  influences  the 
moisture  of  the  land,  and  thereby  the  fertility  of  the  soil, 
is  shown  by  some  striking  facts  given  in  the  book  by 
Parvus  and  Dr.  Lehmann,  "Starving  Russia."  The  au- 
thors assert,  on  the  ground  of  their  own  observations, 
that  the  boundless  and  desultory  devastation  of  forests 
in  the  most  fertile  provinces  of  Russia,  was  the  chief 
cause  of  the  failure  of  crops  from  which  these  at  one 
time  fertile  regions  suffered  severely  during  the  last  few 
decades.  Among  many  other  facts,  they  pointed  out  that 
during  the  course  of  time  five  little  rivers  and  six  lakes 
disappeared  in  the  government  district  of  Stawropol;  in 
the  government  district  of  Busuluk  four  rivers  and  four 
lakes  disappeared ;  in  the  government  district  of  Ssamara 
six  small  rivers,  and  in  the  government  district  of  Bugu- 
ruslaw  two  small  rivers  disappeared.  In  the  government 
districts  of  Nikolajewsk  and  Novausensk  four  rivers  are 
barely  maintained  by  the  construction  of  dams.  Many 
villages  that  formerly  had  running  water  in  their  vicinity 
are  robbed  of  this  advantage,  and  in  many  places  the 
depth  of  wells  is  45  to  60  yards.  As  a  result  of  this  dearth 
of  water  the  soil  is  hard  and  cracked.  Wtih  the  cutting 
down  of  the  forests  the  springs  dried  up  and  rain  became 
scarce. 

Capitalistic  cultivation  of  the  soil  leads  to  capitalistic 
conditions.  For  a  number  of  years  a  portion  of  our 
farmers  derived  enormous  profits  from  the  cultivation  of 
beets  and  the  manufacture  of  sugar  connected  with  it. 
The  system  of  taxation  favored  the  exportation  of  sugar, 
and  in  such  a  manner  that  the  revenue  of  the  taxes  on 
sugar-beets  and  on  the  consumption  of  sugar  was  to  a 
considerable  extent  employed  as  bounties  for  exporta- 
tion. The  reimbursement  granted  to  the  sugar  manu- 
facturers per  hundred-weight  of  sugar  was  considerably 
higher  than  the  tax  paid  by  them  on  the  beets,  and 
placed  them  in  a  position  to  sell  their  sugar  at  low  prices 
to  foreign  countries,  at  the  expense  of  the  domestic  tax- 
payers, and  to  develop  the  cultivation  of  sugar-beets 
more  and  more.  The  advantage  gained  by  the  sugar 
manufacturers  under  this  system  of  taxation  amounted 
to  over  31  million  marks  annually.  Hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  hectares  of  land  that  had  formerly  been  de- 


The  State  and  Society  361 

voted  to  the  cultivation  of  grain,  etc.,  were  now  em- 
ployed to  raise  beets;  countless  factories  were  erected, 
and  the  inevitable  result  was  the  panic.  The  high  profit 
obtained  from  the  cultivation  of  beets  also  caused  a  rise 
in  the  price  of  property.  This  led  to  a  wholesale  pur- 
chase of  the  small  farms,  whose  owners  were  tempted  to 
sell  by  the  high  prices  they  could  obtain  for  their  prop- 
erty. The  soil  was  made  to  serve  industrial  speculation, 
and  the  raising  of  grain  and  potatoes  was  relegated  to 
soil  of  inferior  quality,  which  heightened  the  demand  for 
the  importation  of  products  of  food.  Finally  the  evils 
that  had  arisen  from  the  allowance  on  export  of  sugar 
and  had  gradually  assumed  an  international  character, 
compelled  the  governments  and  the  parliaments  to  abol- 
ish this  system  and  thereby  to  revert  to  somewhat  more 
natural  conditions. 

Under  present-day  conditions  the  small  farmers  cannot 
attain  the  social  status  to  which  they  are  entitled  as  citi- 
zens of  a  civilized  state,  no  matter  how  hard  they  may 
work  and  how  much  they  may  deny  themselves.  What- 
ever the  state  and  society  may  do  to  uphold  these  classes 
that  form  a  considerable  basis  of  the  existing  form  of 
state  and  society,  their  endeavours  remain  patch-work. 
The  agrarian  taxes  harm  this  portion  of  the  agricultural 
population  more  than  they  benefit  them.  Most  of  these 
farmers  do  not  produce  as  much  as  they  need  for  the 
maintenance  of  their  own  families.  They  must  purchase 
part  of  their  supplies,  the  means  for  which  they  obtain 
by  industrial  or  other  additional  labor.  A  great  many  of 
our  small  farmers  are  more  interested  in  a  favorable  sta- 
tus of  industry  and  commerce  than  in  agriculture,  be- 
cause their  own  children  make  their  living  by  industry  or 
commerce,  since  the  farm  offers  no  employment  and  no 
income  to  them.  One  failure  of  crops  increases  the  num- 
ber of  farmers  who  are  obliged  to  purchase  agricultural 
products.  So  how  can  agrarian  taxes  and  prohibition  of 
importation  benefit  those  who  have  little  to  sell  and  must 
occasionally  buy  much?  At  least  80  per  cent,  of  all  agri- 
cultural establishments  are  in  this  position. 

How  the  farmer  cultivates  his  soil  is  his  own  affair  in 
the  era  of  private  property.  He  cultivates  whatever 


362  The  Revolution  in  Agriculture 

seems  most  profitable  to  him,  regardless  of  the  interests 
and  requirements  of  society;  so  "laissez  f  aire !"  In  in- 
dustry the  same  principle  is  applied.  Obscene  pictures 
and  indecent  books  are  manufactured,  and  factories  are 
established  for  the  adulteration  of  food.  These  and  many 
other  activities  are  harmful  to  society ;  they  undermine 
its  morals  and  heighten  corruption.  But  they  are  profita- 
ble, more  so  than  decent  pictures,  scientific  books  and 
unadulterated  food.  The  manufacturer,  eager  for  profits, 
must  only  succeed  in  escaping  the  notice  of  the  police, 
and  he  may  ply  his  trade  in  the  knowledge  that  society 
will  envy  and  respect  him  for  the  money  he  has  made. 

The  mammon  character  of  our  age  is  most  forcibly  ex- 
pressed by  the  stock  exchange  and  its  dealings.  Prod- 
ucts of  the  soil  and  industrial  products,  means  of  trans- 
portation, meterological  and  political  conditions,  want 
and  abundance,  disasters  and  suffering  of  the  masses, 
public  debts,  inventions  and  discoveries,  health  or  dis- 
ease and  death  of  influential  persons,  war  and  rumors  of 
war  often  invented  for  this  purpose,  all  these  and  many 
other  things  are  made  the  object  of  speculation  and  are 
used  to  exploit  and  cheat  one  another.  The  kings  of 
capital  exert  the  most  decisive  influence  on  the  weal  and 
woe  of  society,  and,  favored  by  their  powerful  means  and 
connections,  they  accumulate  boundless  wealth.  Gov- 
ernments and  officials  become  mere  puppets  in  their 
hands,  who  must  perform  while  the  kings  of  the  stock 
exchange  pull  the  wires.  The  powers  of  the  state  do  not 
control  the  stock  market,  the  stock  market  controls  the 
powers  of  the  state. 

All  these  facts,  which  are  becoming  more  evident  every 
day  because  the  evils  are  daily  increasing,  call  for  speedy 
and  thoroughgoing  reforms.  But  society  stands  helpless 
before  these  evils  and  keeps  going  about  in  a  circle  like  a 
horse  in  a  treadmill,  a  picture  of  impotence  and  stupidity. 
They  who  would  like  to  act,  are  still  too  weak ;  tney  who 
ought  to  act,  still  lack  understanding;  they  who  might 
act,  do  not  wish  to.  They  rely  upon  their  power  and 
think,  as  Madame  Pompadour  expressed  it :  <4Apres  nous 
le  deluge!"  (May  the  deluge  come  after  we  are  gone!) 
But  what  if  the  deluge  should  overtake  them? 


I§>0rtalt2atum  of 


CHAPTER  XX. 

\ 

THE  SOCIAL  REVOLUTION. 

i.  —  The  Transformation  of  Society. 

The  tide  rises  and  undermines  the  foundation  of  state 
and  society.  Every  one  feels  that  the  pillars  are  swaying 
and  that  only  powerful  props  can  support  them.  But  to 
erect  such  props  means  great  sacrifices  on  the  part  of  the 
ruling  classes,  and  there  the  difficulty  lies.  Every  prop- 
osition, the  realization  of  which  would  seriously  damage 
the  material  interests  of  the  ruling  classes  and  would 
threaten  to  question  their  privileged  position,  is  bitterly 
opposed  by  them  and  roundly  condemned  as  a  measure 
destined  to  overturn  the  present  order  of  state  and  so- 
ciety. But,  without  questioning  and  ultimately  removing 
the  privileges  of  the  ruling  classes,  the  diseased  world 
cannot  be  cured. 

"The  struggle  for  the  liberation  of  the  working  class  is 
not  a  struggle  for  privileges,  but  one  for  equal  rights  and 
equal  duties  and  for  the  removal  of  all  privileges."  This 
declaration  of  principles  is  contained  in  the  Socialist  plat- 
form. It  follows  that  nothing  can  be  attained  by  half 
measures  and  small  concessions. 

But  the  ruling  classes  regard  their  privileged  position 
as  natural  and  self-understood;  they  will  admit  of  no 
doubt  in  its  permanence  and  justification.  So  it  is  quite 
natural  that  they  oppose  and  combat  every  attempt  to 
shatter  their  privileges.  Even  proposed  measures  and 
laws  that  do  not  change  their  privileged  position  and  the 
present  order  of  society  in  the  least,  cause  the  greatest 
excitement  among  them,  if  their  purse-strings  are 
loosened  thereby  or  likely  to  be  loosened.  In  the  parlia- 
ments mountains  of  paper  are  printed  with  speeches  until 
the  laboring  mountains  bring  forth  a  ridiculous  mouse. 
The  most  self-understood  demands  of  workingmen's  pro- 


364  The  Social  Revolution 

tection  are  met  with  as  much  opposition  as  if  the  exist- 
ence of  society  depended  upon  it.  When,  after  endless 
struggles,  some  concessions  are  won  from  the  ruling 
classes,  they  act  as  if  they  had  sacrificed  a  part  of  their 
fortune.  They  show  the  same  stubborn  opposition  when 
called  upon  to  recognize  the  oppressed  classes  on  a  basis 
of  formal  equality;  for  instance,  to  discuss  questions  of 
labor  agreements  with  them  as  with  their  equals. 

This  opposition  to  the  simplest  things  and  the  most 
self-understood  demands  confirms  the  old  experience  that 
no  ruling  class  can  ever  be  convinced  by  reason,  unless 
the  force  of  circumstances  compels  discretion  and  com- 
pliance. But  the  force  of  circumstances  may  be  found  in 
the  growing  measure  of  understanding  created  in  the  op- 
pressed by  the  development  of  our  conditions.  The  class 
extremes  are  constantly  becoming  more  severe,  more  no- 
ticeable and  more  evident.  The  oppressed  and  exploited 
classes  begin  to  recognize  that  existing  conditions  are  un- 
tenable; their  indignation  increases,  and  with  it  the  im- 
perious demand  to  transform  and  humanize  conditions. 
As  this  perception  grows  and  reaches  ever  widening 
circles,  it  finally  conquers  the  vast  majority  of  society, 
which  is  most  directly  interested  in  this  transformation. 
But  to  the  same  extent  in  which  this  perception  of  the 
untenableness  of  existing  conditions  and  the  need  of  their 
transformation  grows  among  the  masses,  the  power  of  re- 
sistance of  the  ruling  classes  declines,  since  their  power 
is  founded  upon  the  ignorance  and  the  lack  of  under- 
standing of  the  oppressed  and  exploited  classes.  This  re- 
ciprocal action  is  evident,  and  therefore  everything  that 
advances  it  must  be  welcomed.  The  progress  of  capital- 
ism on  the  one  hand  is  balanced  on  the  other  by  the 
growing  perception  that  the  existing  social  order  is  ad- 
verse to  the  wellfare  of  the  vast  majority  of  the  people. 
Although  the  solution  and  removal  of  social  extremes  will 
require  great  sacrifices  and  many  exertions,  a  solution 
will  be  found  as  soon  as  the  extremes  have  attained  the 
height  of  their  development,  toward  which  they  are  rap- 
idly advancing. 

What  measures  are  to  be  resorted  to  at  the  various 
stages  of  development,  depends  upon  circumstances.  It 


The  Socialization  of  Society  365 

ivity  of  social  labor,  until  now  a  source  of  misery  and  op- 
pression for  the  exploited  classes,  will  then  become  a 
source  of  well-being  and  harmonious  development  for  all. 

2. — Expropriation  of  the  Expropriators. 

The  transformation  of  all  means  of  production  into 
common  property  forms  the  new  basis  of  society.  The 
conditions  of  life  and  work  for  both  sexes  in  industry, 
agriculture,  traffic,  education,  marriage,  science,  art  and 
social  intercourse  become  radically  different.  Human  lift 
is  given  a  new  purpose.  Gradually  the  organization  of 
the  state  also  loses  ground;  the  state  disappears;  it,  so  to 
say,  abolishes  itself. 

In  the  first  part  of  this  book  we  have  shown  why  the 
state  had  to  arise.  It  is  the  product  of  development  from 
primitive  society,  founded  on  communism,  that  be- 
comes dissolved  as  private  property  develops.  With  the 
rise  of  private  property  antagonistic  interests  are  formed 
within  society.  Differences  of  class  and  caste  arise  that 
necessarily  lead  to  class  struggles  among  the  different 
groups  and  threaten  the  maintenance  of  the  new  order. 
To  keep  down  the  opponents  of  the  new  order  and  to 
protect  the  threatened  proprietors,  an  orgainzation  is  re- 
quired that  opposes  such  attacks  and  declares  property 
to  be  "righteous"  and  "sacred."  This  organization, 
which  protects  and  maintains  private  property,  becomes 
the  state.  By  laws  the  state  secures  the  proprietor's 
right  to  his  property,  and  upon  those  who  would  attack 
the  order  laid  down  by  law  it  turns  as  judge  and  avenger. 
By  their  innermost  nature,  then,  the  interests  of  the  rul- 
ing, possessing  class,  and  of  the  powers  of  the  state,  al- 
ways are  conservative.  The  organization  of  the  state 
only  changes  when  the  interest  of  property  demands  it. 
Thus  the  state  is  the  indispensable  organization  of  a  so- 
ciety founded  on  class  rule.  As  soon  as  class  extremes 
have  been  removed  by  the  abolition  of  private  property* 
it  becomes  unnecessary  and  impossible.  The  state  gradu- 
ally ceases  to  exist  with  the  passing  away  of  class  rule,  as 
surely  as  religion  ceases  to  exist  when  belief  in  superior 
beings  and  occult  powers  is  no  longer  met  with.  Words 


366  The  Social  Revolution 

is  impossible  to  predict  what  measures  will  be  necessi- 
tated by  circumstances  in  particular  instances.  No  gov- 
ernment, no  prime-minister,  be  he  the  most  powerful  per- 
son, can  predict  what  circumstances  will  compel  him  to 
do  a  year  hence.  It  is  all  the  more  impossible  to  predict 
measures  that  will  be  dictated  by  circumstances  unknown 
to  us  at  present.  The  question  of  measures  is  a  question 
of  tactics  to  be  observed  in  a  struggle.  The  tactics  are 
influenced  by  the  opponent  and  also  by  the  resources  at 
the  command  of  both  parties.  Means  that  are  splendid 
to-day  may  be  harmful  to-morrow,  because  the  circum- 
stances that  justified  their  employment  may  have 
changed.  It  is  but  necessary  always  to  keep  our  aim  be- 
fore us ;  the  means  for  attaining  same  depend  upon  time 
and  circumstances.  But  the  most  effective  means  that 
time  and  circumstances  permit  of  should  be  resorted  to. 
In  depicting  future  developments  we  must  therefore  re- 
sort to  hypothetical  methods;  we  must  surmise  certain 
conditions. 

Proceeding  from  this  point  of  view,  we  surmise  that,  at 
a  given  time,  all  the  depicted  evils  will  have  developed  to 
such  extremes  and  will  have  become  so  evident  and  tan- 
gible to  the  great  majority  of  the  population,  that  they 
come  to  be  regarded  as  unbearable;  that  a  general,  irre- 
sistible demand  for  a  thoroughgoing  transformation  will 
manifest  itself,  and  that,  accordingly,  the  quickest  help 
will  be  considered  the  most  appropriate. 

All  social  evils,  without  exception,  spring  from  the 
present  social  order,  which,  as  has  been  shown,  is  found- 
ed on  capitalism,  on  the  capitalistic  method  of  produc- 
tion. This  method  of  production  enables  the  capitalist 
.class — the  owners  of  all  the  means  of  production,  the 
ground,  mines,  raw  materials,  tools,  machines,  means  of 
transportation — to  exploit  and  oppress  the  masses,  which 
leads  to  insecurity  of  existence  and  to  the  degradation 
of  the  exploited  classes.  Accordingly  the  most  rapid 
and  direct  way  would  be  to  transform  capitalistic  prop- 
erty into  common,  or  social  property  by  a  general  ex- 
propriation. The  production  of  commodities  will  be  so- 
cialized; it  will  become  a  production  for  and  by  society. 
Manufacture  on  a  large  scale  and  the  increasing  product- 


The  Socialization  of  Society  367 

must  have  a  purport ;  when  they  lose  same  they  cease  to 
convey  a  meaning. 

Here  a  reader  who  is  capitalistically  minded  may  ob- 
ject and  may  ask  on  what  legal  ground  can  society  justify 
these  overthrowing  changes?  The  legal  ground  will  be 
the  same  that  always  was  found,  when  similar  changes 
and  transformations  were  needful :  The  common  well- 
fare.  Society,  not  the  state,  is  the  source  of  law.  The 
state  is  only  clerk  to  the  society,  whose  duty  it  is  to  meas- 
ure and  dispense  the  law.  Until  now,  ruling  society  was 
always  but  a  small  minority,  but  this  small  minority 
acted  in  behalf  of  the  entire  nation  and  represented  itself 
as  being  society,  just  as  Louis  XIV.  represented  himself 
as  being  the  state :  "L'etat  cest  moi."  (I  am  the  state.) 
When  our  newspapers  report:  "The  season  has  begun, 
society  is  returning  to  town ;"  or :  "The  season  is  over, 
society  is  hastening  to  the  country,"  they  do  not  mean 
the  people,  but  the  upper  ten  thousand  who  constitute 
society  as  they  constitute  the  state.  The  masses  are  the 
"plebs,"  the  vile  multitude.  In  the  same  way,  everything 
undertaken  by  the  state  for  society  in  behalf  of  "the  com- 
mon welfare,"  has,  first  and  foremost,  served  the  inter- 
ests of  the  ruling  classes.  "Salus  reipublica  suprema  lex 
esto"  (the  welfare  of  the  republic  shall  be  the  supreme 
law),  is  the  well-known  legal  principle  laid  down  by  the 
ancient  Romans.  But  who  formed  the  Roman  republic? 
The  subjected  peoples,  the  millions  of  slaves?  No!  The 
comparatively  small  number  of  Roman  citizens,  above 
all  the  Roman  nobility,  who  permitted  the  slaves  to  sup- 
port them. 

When,  during  the  middle  ages,  nobility  and  princes 
robbed  the  communal  property,  they  did  so  on  the  legal 
ground  of  "the  common  welfare,"  and  in  what  manner 
they  disposed  of  the  communal  property  and  the  prop- 
erty of  the  helpless  peasants,  the  history  of  the  middle 
ages,  down  to  recent  times,  has  amply  shown.  The  agra- 
rian history  of  the  past  thousand  years  is  a  history  of 
uninterrupted  robbery  of  communal  and  peasant  prop- 
erty, practiced  by  the  nobility  and  the  Church  in  all 
civilized  states  of  Europe.  When  the  great  French  Revo- 
lution then  proceeded  to  expropriate  the  property  of  the 


368  The  Social  Revolution 

nobility  and  the  Church,  it  did  so  "in  behalf  of  the  com- 
mon welfare,"  and  the  greater  part  of  the  eight  million  of 
property  holders  who  form  the  chief  stay  of  Bourgeois 
France,  owe  their  existence  to  this  expropriation.  In  be- 
half of  the  "common  welfare/'Spain  took  possession  of 
much  Church  property,  and  Italy  confiscated  it  entirely, 
applauded  by  the  most  ardent  defenders  of  "sacred  prop- 
erty." The  English  nobility  for  centuries  robbed  the 
Irish  and  English  nations  of  their  property,  and  from 
1804  to  1832  legally  presented  itself — "in  behalf  of  the 
common  welfare" — with  no  less  than  3,511,710  acres  of 
communal  property.  When,  after  the  great  North  Amer- 
ican civil  war,  millions  of  slaves  were  emancipated,  who 
had  been  the  lawfully  acquired  property  of  their  masters, 
without  reimbursing  the  latter,  this  was  done  "in  behalf 
of  the  common  welfare."  Our  entire  bourgeois  develop- 
ment is  an  uninterrupted  process  of  expropriation  and 
confiscation.  In  this  process  the  mechanic  is  expropri- 
ated by  the  manufacturer,  the  peasant  by  the  great  land- 
owner, the  small  dealer  by  the  large  merchant,  and, 
finally,  one  capitalist  by  another.  To  judge  by  the  decla- 
mations of  our  bourgeoisie,  all  this  is  being  done  to 
serve  "the  common  welfare,"  in  the  "interest  of  society." 
On  the  18  Brumaire  and  December  2,  the  followers  of 
Napoleon  "saved'  "society"  and  "society"  congratulated 
them.  When  society  will  save  itself  by  taking  back  the 
property  it  has  created,  it  will  perform  the  most  note- 
worthy deed.  For  then  its  actions  will  not  purpose  to 
suppress  one  to  the  advantage  of  another,  but  to  obtain 
equality  of  opportunity  for  all  and  to  enable  each  and 
every  one  to  lead  an  existence  worthy  of  a  human  being. 
It  will  be  the  grandest  measure,  morally,  ever  enacted  by 
society. 

In  what  forms  this  great  process  of  social  expropriation 
will  be  consummated  and  under  what  conditions,  is  of 
course  quite  impossible  to  predict. 

In  his  fourth  social  letter  to  v.  Kirchmann,  entitled 
"Capital,"*  Rodbertus  says :  "A  confiscation  of  all  private 
property  in  land,  is  not  a  chimera,  but  quite  possible 


*Berlin,  1884. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  369 

from  the  standpoint  of  political  economy.  It  would  also 
be  the  most  radical  help  for  society.  For  society  suffers 
from  the  increase  of  rent  in  land  and  capital.  With  the 
abolition  of  private  property  in  land,  traffic  and  the  prog- 
ress of  national  wealth  would  not  be  interrupted  for  one 
moment."  What  do  the  Agrarians  say  to  this  opinion  of 
one  who  was  formerly  a  member  of  their  party? 

The  further  course  of  events,  after  such  a  measure  has 
been  resorted  to,  cannot  be  definitely  laid  down.  No  hu- 
man being  is  able  to  foresee  how  coming  generations 
will  shape  the  details  of  their  social  organizations,  and 
in  what  manner  they  will  best  succeed  in  satisfying  their 
requirements.  In  society,  as  in  nature,  there  is  constant 
change.  One  thing  appears  while  another  disappears; 
what  is  old  and  wasted  is  replaced  by  what  is  new  and 
full  of  vitality.  Inventions  and  discoveries  along  varied 
lines  are  made  whose  significance  cannot  be  foreseen,  and 
when  applied,  such  inventions  and  discoveries  may  revo- 
lutionize human  life  and  the  entire  social  organization. 

In  the  following,  therefore,  we  can  only  discuss  the 
development  of  general  principles.  They  may  be  laid 
down  as  a  logical  outcome  of  the  prior  explanations,  and 
to  some  extent  it  is  possible  to  overlook  in  what  manner 
they  will  be  carried  out.  Even  heretofore  society  could 
not  be  guided  and  directed  by  single  individuals,  al- 
though it  sometimes  appeared  so.  But  appearances  are 
deceiving;  presuming  to  direct,  we  are  being  directed. 
Even  heretofore  society  has  been  an  organism  that  de- 
veloped in  accordance  with  definite,  inherent  laws.  In 
the  future  the  guidance  and  direction,  according  to  the 
will  of  individuals,  will  be  entirely  out  of  the  question. 
Society  will  then  be  a  democracy  that  will  have  unrav- 
elled the  secrets  of  its  nature.  It  will  have  discovered  the 
laws  of  its  development  and  will  consciously  apply  them 
to  its  further  growth. 


370          Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

CHAPTER  XXI. 
Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society. 

i. — Duty  to  Work  of  All  Able-bodied  Persons. 

As  soon  as  society  has  become  the  owner  of  all  means 
of  production,  the  duty  to  work  of  all  able-bodied  per- 
sons, regardless  of  sex,  becomes  a  fundamental  law  of 
socialized  society.  Society  cannot  exist  without  labor. 
It  therefore  is  justified  in  demanding  that  all  who  seek 
to  satisfy  their  requirements,  should  also  serve  to  the  best 
of  their  physical  and  mental  abilities  in  producing  the 
commodities  that  are  needful  to  satisfy  the  requirements 
of  all.  The  silly  assertion  that  the  Socialists  wish  to 
abolish  work  is  an  absurdity.  Lazy  persons,  shirkers  of 
work,  are  met  with  in  bourgeois  society  only.  Socialism 
is  agreed  with  the  Bible  in  asserting  that  "he  who  will 
not  work  neither  shall  he  eat."  But  work  shall  be  useful, 
productive  activity.  The  new  society  will  therefore  in- 
sist that  everyone  choose  some  definite  industrial,  agri- 
cultural, or  other  useful  activity,  whereby  he  performs  a 
certain  amount  of  labor  for  the  satisfaction  of  existing 
requirements.  No  enjoyment  without  labor,  without  la- 
bor no  enjoyment. 

Since  all  are  obliged  to  work,  all  have  the  same  interest 
in  having  three  conditions  of  labor  complied  with. 
Firstly,  that  the  work-day  shall  not  be  too  long  and  that 
the  work  shall  not  require  over-exertion ;  secondly,  that 
the  work  shall  be  varied  and  as  agreeable  as  possible; 
thirdly,  that  it  shall  be  as  productive  as  possible,  since 
on  this  the  length  of  the  work-day  and  the  number  of 
obtainable  enjoyments  depend.  But  these  three  conditions 
again  are  determined  by  the  number  and  the  nature  of 
the  means  of  production  and  the  workers;  they  are  fur- 
thermore determined  by  the  required  standard  of  living. 
Socialistic  society  does  not  establish  itself  in  order  to 
lead  a  proletarian  existence,  but  to  abolish  the  proleta- 
rian manner  of  living  of  the  great  majority  of  people. 
It  seeks  to  grant  to  everyone  the  fullest  measure  of  the 
comforts  and  joys  of  life,  and  so  the  question  arises :  To 
what  extent  will  the  requirements  of  society  grow? 


The  Socialization  of  Society  371 

In  order  to  determine  this  an  administration  will  be 
necessary  that  comprises  all  fields  of  social  activity.  Here 
our  municipalities  will  form  an  appropriate  foundation. 
If  they  are  too  large  to  permit  of  obtaining  an  insight, 
they  may  be  divided  into  districts.  As  in  primitive  so- 
ciety, all  members  of  the  communities  who  are  of  age, 
regardless  of  sex,  will  participate  in  the  elections  and 
choose  the  persons  who  are  to  take  charge  of  the  ad- 
ministration. At  the  head  of  all  local  bodies  there  will 
be  a  central  administration.  This — let  it  be  noted — 
will  not  be  a  government  with  ruling  powers,  but  an  ex- 
ecutive board  of  managers.  Whether  this  board  of  man- 
agers is  to  be  elected  by  the  entire  population  or  by  the 
local  boards  is  not  essential.  These  questions  will  not  be 
as  important  then  as  they  are  now,  for  election  to  these 
offices  will  not  mean  greater  power  and  influence  and  a 
higher  income.  They  will  be  positions  of  trust  to  which 
the  fittest,  be  they  men  or  women,  will  be  elected,  and 
they  can  be  recalled  or  re-elected,  as  conditions  may  de- 
mand, or  as  it  may  seem  desirable  to  the  voters.  All  of- 
fices are  temporary.  The  persons  who  hold  these  posi- 
tions, therefore,  cannot  be  regarded  as  officials.  Their 
function  is  not  a  permanent  one,  nor  is  a  hierarchical 
order  of  advancement  provided  for.  Viewed  from  this 
standpoint,  it  also  becomes  a  matter  of  indifference 
whether  there  will  be  any  intermediate  bodies  between 
the  central  administration  and  the  local  administrations, 
as  provincial  administrations,  etc.  If  considered  neces- 
sary they  will  be  instituted ;  if  not,  they  will  be  omitted. 
All  that  will  be  determined  by  experience.  If  progress  in 
the  development  of  society  should  make  old  institutions 
superfluous,  they  will  be  abolished  without  any  ado 
and  without  any  conflict,  since  no  one  is  personally  inter- 
ested in  their  maintenance,  and  new  ones  will  be  insti- 
tuted instead.  This  thoroughly  democratic  administra- 
tion is  very  different  from  the  present.  At  the  present 
time — what  battles  in  the  newspapers,  what  a  warfare  of 
tongues  in  the  parliaments,  what  piles  of  documents  in 
the  government  offices,  to  accomplish  an  insignificant 
change  in  the  administration  or  government ! 

To  begin  with,  the  main  task  will  be  to  determine  the 
existing  forces,  the  number  and  kind  of  rae.ans  of  produc- 


372         Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

tion,  factories,  workshops,  means  of  transportation,  area 
of  land,  and  the  previous  productivity.  Further  it  will  be 
necessary  to  determine  the  supply  on  hand  and  the  num- 
ber of  articles  and  products  required  to  supply  the  de- 
mand in  a  given  length  of  time.  As  at  present  the  state 
and  the  various  municipalities  annually  determine  then 
budgets,  this  will  in  future  be  done  for  the  entire  social 
demand,  and  changes  made  necessary  by  new  or  in- 
creased demands  can  be  fully  taken  into  consideration. 
Statistics  here  become  the  main  factor.  They  are  the 
most  important  auxiliary  science  in  the  new  society, 
since  they  furnish  the  standard  whereby  all  social  activ- 
ity may  be  measured.  Statistics  are  being  used  for  simi- 
lar purposes  at  present  on  a  large  scale.  The  budgets  of 
nation,  state,  and  municipality  are  founded  on  a  great 
number  of  statistical  investigations  that  are  annually  un- 
dertaken by  the  various  branches  of  administration.  Ex- 
perience of  long  duration  and  a  certain  stability  in  cur- 
rent demands  simplify  them.  Under  normal  conditions 
every  manufacturer  and  every  merchant  is  also  enabled 
to  determine  his  requirements  for  the  coming  quarter  of 
a  year  and  in  what  manner  he  must  arrange  his  produc- 
tion and  his  purchases.  Unless  excessive  changes  occur  he 
can  meet  them  readily  and  without  much  difficulty. 

The  experience  that  the  crises  are  brought  on  by  blind, 
anarchistic  production ;  that  is  to  say,  because  goods  are 
produced  without  any  knowledge  of  the  stock  on  hand, 
the  sales,  and  the  demand  for  the  various  articles  on  the 
world  market,  has  caused  the  captains  of  industry  in  va- 
rious branches — as  already  stated — to  form  trusts.  The 
object  of  these  trusts  is  to  determine  prices  on  the  one 
hand,  and  on  the  other  to  regulate  production.  By  the 
producing  ability  of  each  individual  concern  and  by  the 
sales  it  is  likely  to  make,  the  amount  of  goods  to  be  pro- 
duced for  the  coming  months  is  determined.  Failure  to 
comply  with  these  rules  is  punished  by  a  fine  and  by  pro- 
scription. The  manufacturers  form  these  agreements 
not  to  benefit,  but  to  harm  the  public,  and  solely  for  their 
own  advantage.  Their  purpose  is  to  use  the  power  of  co- 
operation to  insure  the  greatest  advantage  for  them- 
selves. By  regulating  production  it  becomes  possible  to 
exact  the  payment  of  prices  that  can  never  be  obtained  as 


The  Socialization  of  Society  373 

long  as  the  individual  manufacturers  compete  with  onfc 
another.  So  the  manufacturer  enriches  himself  at  the 
expense  of  the  consumer,  who  must  pay  the  fixed  price 
for  the  article  that  he  needs;  and,  as  the  consumer  is  in- 
jured by  the  trusts,  so  also  the  worker.  Regulation  of 
production  by  the  manufacturers  releases  a  number  of 
workers  and  employes,  and  these,  in  order  to  live,  must 
underbid  their  fellow-workers.  Moreover,  the  social 
power  of  the  trust  is  so  great  that  the  labor  unions,  too 
can  rarely  cope  with  them.  The  employers,  accordingly, 
enjoy  a  double  advantage ;  they  receive  higher  prices  and 
pay  lower  wages.  This  regulation  of  production  by  as- 
sociations of  employers  is  the  opposite  of  that  which  will 
take  effect  in  Socialistic  society.  To-day  the  interest  of 
the  employers  is  the  determining  factor;  in  the  future 
it  will  be  the  interest  of  the  general  public.  But  in  bour- 
geois society  even  the  best  organized  trust  cannot  over- 
look and  compute  all  the  factors.  Competition  and  specu- 
lation on  the  world  market  continue  to  rage,  in  spite  of 
the  trust,  and  suddenly  it  becomes  manifest  that  the  cal- 
culation is  faulty,  and  the  artificial  structure  breaks  down. 
Like  industry,  commerce  also  posseses  far-reaching 
statistics.  Every  week  the  large  centers  of  commerce 
and  seaport  towns  publish  lists  of  the  supplies  on  hand 
of  kerosene,  cotton,  sugar,  coffee,  wheat,  etc.  Sometimes 
these  statistics  are  not  exact,  because  the  owners  of  the 
goods  occasionally  have  a  personal  interest  in  preventing 
the  truth  from  becoming  known.  But,  taken  all  in  all, 
these  statistics  are  pretty  reliable  and  enable  those  inter- 
ested to  judge  the  probable  aspect  of  the  market  in  the 
near  future.  But  here,  too,  speculation  enters  into  con- 
sideration that  frequently  deceives  and  upsets  all  calcu- 
lations and  often  makes  it  impossible  to  carry  on  an  hon- 
est business.  Just  as  a  general  regulation  of  production 
is  made  impossible  in  bourgeois  society  by  the  conflicting 
interests  of  the  countless  private  producers,  so  the  regu- 
lation of  distribution  is  made  impossible  by  the  specula- 
tive nature  of  commerce  and  by  the  conflicting  interests  of 
the  great  number  of  persons  engaged  in  it.  But  what  has 
been  accomplished  so  far  gives  an  idea  of  what  can  be  ac- 
complished as  soon  as  private  interests  disappear  and  the 
common  interest  predominates.  An  example  of  this  is, 


374         Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

for  instance,  the  harvest  statistics  compiled  annually  by 
various  states,  that  make  it  possible  to  calculate  the 
crops,  the  amount  needful  to  supply  the  domestic  de- 
mand, and  the  probable  prices. 

But  in  a  socialized  society  conditions  will  be  perfectly 
orderly,  since  the  solidarity  of  society  will  have  been  es- 
tablished. Everything  is  carried  out,  according  to  plans, 
in  an  orderly  way,  and  so  it  will  be  easy  to  determine  the 
amounts  required  by  the  various  demands.  When  some 
experience  has  been  gained,  everything  will  run 
smoothly.  When  the  average  demand  for  meat,  bread, 
shoes,  garments,  etc.,  has  been  statistictlly  determined, 
and  when  the  output  of  the  respective  establishments  of 
production  is  known,  the  average  daily  amount  of  socially 
necessary  labor  can  be  established.  It,  furthermore,  can 
be  determined  whether  more  establishments  of  produc- 
tion are  needed,  or  whether  some  can  be  dispensed  with 
as  superfluous  and  can  be  fitted  out  for  other  purposes. 

Every  individual  chooses  the  branch  of  industry  in 
which  he  wishes  to  be  employed.  The  great  number  of 
very  different  realms  of  activity  makes  it  possible  to 
take  the  most  varied  wishes  into  consideration.  If  there 
is  an  excess  of  workers  in  one  branch  and  a  lack  of  work- 
ers in  another,  it  will  be  the  duty  of  the  administration 
to  make  the  necessary  arrangements  and  to  bring  about 
an  equalization.  To  organize  production  and  to  give  op- 
portunity to  the  various  forces  to  be  employed  at  the 
right  place,  will  be  the  chief  task  of  the  elected  adminis- 
trations. As  all  perfect  themselves  in  their  particular 
tasks  the  wheels  run  more  smoothly.  The  different 
branches  of  industry  and  sub-divisions  elect  their  man- 
agers, who  must  control  the  work.  But  these  are  no 
slave-drivers,  as  overseers  and  foremen  are  to-day,  but 
fellow-workers  who  simply  practice  the  administrative 
function  entrusted  to  them,  in  place  of  a  productive  one. 
It  is  not  impossible  that  at  a  more  advanced  stage  of  or- 
ganization and  with  a  more  perfect  education  of  all  its 
members,  these  functions  will  become  alternating  and 
will,  in  definite  rotation,  be  overtaken  by  all  persons  con- 
cerned, regardless  of  sex. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  375 

2. — Harmony  of  Interests. 

Labor,  organized  on  a  basis  of  complete  freedom  and 
democratic  equality,  with  one  for  all  and  all  for  one,  will 
call  forth  a  rivalry  and  a  desire  to  create  that  are  no- 
where met  with  under  the  present  industrial  system ;  and 
this  joy  of  creation  will  enhance  the  productivity  of  labor. 

Since  all  work  for  one  another,  they  are  interested  in 
having  all  objects  well  made  and  with  as  little  waste  of 
time  and  strength  as  possible,  be  it  to  save  labor,  or  to 
gain  time  for  the  manufacture  of  new  products  destined 
to  satisfy  higher  demands.  This  common  interest  will 
cause  all  to  seek  to  improve,  simplify  and  hasten  the 
process  of  work.  The  ambition  to  discover  and  invent 
will  be  stimulated  to  the  highest  degree,  and  people  will 
endeavours  to  outdo  each  other  in  new  ideas  and  sugges- 
tions.* So  the  opposite  of  what  is  claimed  bv  the  op- 
ponents of  Socialism  will  be  true.  How  many  discover- 
ers and  inventors  perish  in  bourgeois  society!  How 
many  are  exploited  and  cast  aside !  If  intelligence  and 
talent  were  to  hold  the  foremost  place  in  bourgeois  so- 
ciety, instead  of  property,  the  greater  part  of  the  employ- 
ers would  have  to  make  way  for  their  workingmen,  fore- 
men, mechanics,  engineers,  chemists,  etc.  These  are  the 
men  who,  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred,  have 
made  the  discoveries,  inventions,  and  improvements  that 
are  applied  by  the  man  with  the  full  purse.  How  many 


*"The  force  of  rivalry  that  leads  to  supreme  efforts  to  win  the 
praise  and  admiration  of  others,  has  been  shown  by  experience  to  be 
H  useful  one  wherever  persons  compete  with  one  another,  even  in 
regard  to  frivolous  matters  and  such  matters  from  which  the  public 
derives  no  benefit.  But  a  rivalry  as  to  who  can  best  serve  the  com- 
mon welfare,  is  a  sort  of  competition  that  Socialists  do  not  repu- 
c-iate." — John  Stuart  Mill,  "Political  Economy."  Every  society,  every 
orgamration  of  persons  having  the  ?ame  aims  and  a  common  cause, 
also  furnishes  many  examples  of  a  nobler  endeavor  that  leads  to  no 
material  success  but  to  a  purely  ideal  one.  The  persons  vieing  with 
each  other  are  indeed  impelled  by  the  ambition  of  serving  the  com- 
mon cause  and  of  winning  recognition.  But  this  sort  of  ambition  is 
a  virtue  since  it  serves  the  common  good  and  at  the  same  time  gives 
satisfaction  to  the  individual.  Ambition  is  harmful  only  when  it  is 
satisfied  at  the  expense  of  others  or  to  the  detriment  of  society. 


376         Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

thousands  of  discoverers  and  inventors  have  failed  be- 
cause they  could  not  find  a  man  who  would  furnish  the 
money  to  carry  out  their  discoveries  and  inventions,  and 
how  many  meritorious  discoverers  and  inventors  are 
crushed  by  the  social  misery  of  daily  life,  is  quite  beyond 
our  calculation.  Not  the  persons  endowed  with  a  quick 
intelligence  and  a  clear  brain  are  masters  of  the  world, 
but  those  endowed  with  ample  means,  which  does  not  im- 
ply that  a  clear  brain  and  a  full  purse  cannot  belong  to 
the  same  person. 

Everyone  engaged  in  practical  life  knows  with  how 
much  suspicion  the  workingmen  regard  every  improve- 
ment, every  new  invention  that  is  introduced  to-day ;  and 
their  suspicion  is  entirely  justified.  For,  as  a  rule,  not 
the  workers  but  the  employers  are  the  only  ones  to  de- 
rive any  advantage  from  it.  The  worker  must  fear  that 
the  new  machine,  or  the  improvement,  will  make  him  su- 
perfluous and  turn  him  out  into  the  street.  Instead  of 
joyfully  acclaiming  a  new  invention  that  is  a  credit  to 
humanity  and  ought  to  be  a  boon  to  him,  he  curses  it. 
Many  an  improvement  in  the  process  of  production  in- 
vented by  workingmen  has  never  been  introduced.  The 
inventor  keeps  his  invention  to  himself,  because  he  fears 
that  it  will  harm  him,  instead  of  benefiting  him.  Such 
are  the  natural  results  of  conflicting  interests.* 


*v.  Thuenen— "The  Isolated  State,"  says:  "The  conflicting  in- 
terests are  the  reason  why  proletarians  and  possessors  are  hostile  to 
one  another  and  will  remain  unreconciled  as  long  as  the  discord  in 
their  interests  has  not  been  removed.  Not  only  by  the  wealth  of  the 
employer,  but  also  by  invention  in  manufactory,  by  the  building  of 
roads  and  railways,  and  by  the  opening  of  new  markets,  the  national 
income  may  be  greatly  increased.  But  in  our  present  social  order  the 
workingman  derives  no  benefit  from  this  increase.  His  status  re- 
mains the  same,  and  the  entire  increase  in  income  falls  to  the  share 
of  the  employers,  capitalists  and  landlords." '.  This  last  sentence  is 
an  almost  verbal  anticipation  of  a  declaration  by  Gladstone  in  the 
English  parliament,  in  1884.  He  said:  "This  intoxicating  growth 
of  wealth  and  power  (experienced  by  England  during  the  last  twenty 
years)  has  been  limited  exclusively  to  the  possessing  classes;"  and 
v.  Thuenen  says :  "in  the  separation  of  the  worker  from  his  product 
the  evil  lies" — Morelly  says  in  his  "Principles  of  Legislation": 
"Property  divides  us  into  two  classes,  the  rich  and  the  poor.  The 


The  Socialization  of  Society  377 

In  Socialistic  society  the  conflict  of  interests  will  be  re- 
moved. Everyone  will  develop  his  abilities  to  serve  him- 
self and  will  thereby  serve  society.  At  present,  satisfac- 
tion of  personal  egotism  and  service  of  society  usually 
are  extremes  that  exclude  each  other.  In  the  new  so- 
ciety these  extremes  will  not  exist.  Satisfaction  of  per- 
sonal egotism  and  service  of  society  will  be  harmonious ; 
they  will  coincide.* 

The  splendid  influence  of  such  a  status  of  morals  is 
obvious.  The  productivity  of  labor  will  rapidly  in- 
crease. Especially  will  the  productivity  of  labor  grow, 
because  the  dissemination  of  forces  among  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  tiny  manufacturers  with  imperfect  tools  and 
insufficient  means,  will  cease.  It  has  been  previously 
shown  among  how  many  small,  medium-sized  and  large 
manufactories  German  industry  is  disseminated.  By 
gathering  in  all  the  small  and  medium-sized  manufac- 
tories into  manufacture  on  a  large  scale  in  great  estab- 
lishments that  will  be  furnished  with  all  the  most  mod- 
ern technical  improvements,  a  tremendous  waste  of  ef- 
fort, time,  material  of  all  kinds  (light,  heat,  etc.),  and 
space  will  be  removed,  and  the  productivity  of  labor  will 
be  heightened.  The  difference  that  exists  between  the 
productivity  of  small,  medium-sized  and  large  manufac- 
tories, may  be  illustrated  by  an  example  from  the  indus- 
trial census  of  Massachusetts  of  1890.  There  the  factor- 
ies in  ten  chief  branches  of  industry  are  divided  into 
three  classes.  Those  that  produced  less  than  40,000  dol- 
lars' worth  were  placed  in  the  lower  class;  those  that 


former  love  their  property  and  do  not  care  to  defend  the  state.  The 
latter  can  not  love  their  fatherland  for  it  gives  them  nothing  but 
misery.  But  under  Communism  every  one  loves  his  fatherland  for 
by  it  everyone  obtains  life  and  happiness." 

*In  weighing  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  Communism, 
John  Stuart  Mill  says  in  his  "Political  Economy":  "No  field  can  be 
more  favorable  to  this  conception  (that  public  interest  and  private  in- 
terest are  identical)  than  a  communistic  association.  All  the  ambition 
as  well  as  the  physical  and  mental  activity,  that  is  at  present  directed 
upon  the  pursuit  of  sporadic  and  selfish  interests,  would  demand  a 
different  sphere  of  activity,  and  would  find  it  in  the  service  of  the 
common  good  of  society.'' 


378         Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 


produced  between  40,000  and  150,000  dollars*  worth  in 
the  middle  class,  and  those  that  produced  over  150,000 
dollars'  worth,  in  the  upper  class.  This  division  pre- 
sented the  following  figures : 


Number 
of 
Establish- 
ments 

Percentage 
of  all 
Establish- 
ments 

Value  of 
Production 

Percentage 
of  entire 
Value  of 
Production 

Lower  class  .... 
Middle  class   .  .  . 
Upper  class  .... 

2,042 
968 
686 

55-2 
26.2 
18.6 

51,660,617 
106,868,635 
390,817,300 

9-4 
19-5 
71,1 

3,696 

100.  — 

549,346,552 

IOO.  

Twice  the  number  of  small  factories,  compared  to  the 
large  and  medium-sized  ones,  turned  out  only  9.4  per 
cent,  of  the  entire  production,  while  the  large  factories, 
which  formed  only  23  per  cent,  of  the.  total  number,  pro- 
duced almost  2y2  times  the  quantity  of  all  the  others. 
But  even  the  large  establishments  could  be  organized 
much  more  rationally  still,  so  that  the  total  production 
might  yield  a  still  far  greater  quantity. 

How  much  time  can  be  gained  by  placing  production 
on  a  rational  basis?  That  has  been  shown  by  interesting 
calculations  made  by  Th.  Hertzka,  in  his  book  on  "The 
Laws  of  Social  Evolution,"  published  in  1886.  He  calcu- 
lated how  much  time  and  labor  power  would  be  needful 
to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  population  of  Austria, 
which  was  22  millions  strong  at  the  time.  For  this  pur- 
pose, Hertzka  investigated  the  productivity  of  the  large 
establishments  in  the  various  lines  of  industry  and  based 
his  calculations  on  the  results.  This  calculation  includes 
the  farming  of  lo1/^  million  hectares  of  cultivated  soil 
arc*  3  million  hectares  of  pasturage,  which  should  suffice 
to  supply  said  population  with  meat  and  the  products  of 
agriculture.  Furthermore,  Hertzka  included  in  his  calcu- 
lation the  building  of  homes,  in  such  a  manner  that  every 
family  might  have  their  own  house,  with  a  space  of  150 
square  meters,  for-  a  period  of  fifty  years.  It  was  found 
that,  for  agriculture,  building,  the  production  of  flour 
and  sugar,  coal-mining,  iron  and  machine  industry,  the 
clothing  industry,  and  the  chemical  industry,  615,000 


The  Socialization  of  Society  379 

workers  would  be  needed,  who  would  have  to  work 
throughout  the  year  for  the  present  average  number  of 
hours  daily.  But  these  615,000  workers  formed  only 
12.3  per  cent,  of  the  able-bodied  population  of  Austria, 
not  counting  the  women,  nor  the  male  inhabitants  under 
1 6  or  over  50.  If  the  5  million  men  available  at  the  time 
of  the  calculation  were  employed  like  the  615,000,  each 
of  them  would  have  to  work  only  36.9  days,  about  six 
weeks  annually,  to  supply  the  most  needful  requirements 
for  22  million  human  beings.  But,  if  we  assume  300 
work-days  annually,  instead  of  37,  we  find  that,  under  the 
new  organization  it  would  be  necessary  to  work  only  ifys 
hours  daily  to  supply  the  most  necessary  requirements. 

Hertza  also  takes  the  requirements  of  luxury  of  the 
better  situated  classes  into  consideration  and  finds  that 
the  manufacture  of  such  articles,  to  supply  the  demands 
of  22  million  people,  would  require  315,000  more  workers. 
According  to  Hertzka,  then,  about  I  million  workers, 
20  per  cent,  of  the  able-bodied  male  population  of  Austria, 
excluding  those  under  16  and  over  50,  would  be  needed 
to  supply  the  entire  needs  of  the  population  in  sixty  days. 
If  we  again  take  the  entire  able-bodied  male  population 
into  consideration,  we  find  that  they  would  have  to  per- 
form only  about  2^/2  hours  of  work  daily.* 

This  calculation  will  not  surprise  anyone  who  is  well 
acquainted  with  existing  conditions.  If  we  furthermore 
assume  that,  with  such  a  short  work-day,  only  the  sick 
and  the  invalids  must  be  excluded,  while  men  over  50 
might  still  work,  and  youths  under  16  might  be  active  to 
some  extent,  and  that  the  women  might  also  serve  in  in- 
dustry, except  those  who  are  engaged  in  child-rearing, 
the  preparation  of  food,  etc.,  we  find  that  the  hours  of 
work  might  be  shortened  still  more,  or  that  the  demands 


*In  his  "False  Doctrines,"  Engen  Richter  ridicules  the  enormous 
shortening  of  the  hours  of  work  predicted  by  us  that  would  result  if 
all  were  obliged  to  work  and  if  the  process  of  production  were  or- 
ganized in  accordance  with  the  highest  technical  development.  He 
tries  to  belittle  the  productivity  of  large  manufacture  and  to  enlarge 
the  importance  of  small  manufacture,  in  order  to  assert  that  it  would 
not  be  possible  to  produce  the  required  amount.  To  make  Socialism 
seem  impossible  the  upholders  of  the  present  "order"  must  try  to 
discredit  the  advantages  of  their  own  social  system. 


380         Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

might  be  greatly  increased.  Nor  will  any  one  deny  that 
tremendous,  incalculable  progress  may  still  be  made  in 
perfecting  the  process  of  production,  a  factor  that  will 
create  further  advantages.  On  the  other  hand,  many  re- 
quirements will  be  satisfied  that  only  a  small  minority 
can  satisfy  to-day,  and,  with  the  higher  development  of 
civilization,  new  requirements  will  arise  that  will  also 
have  to  be  satisfied.  It  must  be  iterated  and  reiterated : 
The  new  society  will  not  elect  to  lead  a  proletarian  ex- 
istence. It  will  demand  the  existence  of  a  highly  civil- 
ized people  for  all  its  members  from  the  first  to  the  last. 
But  it  shall  not  only  satisfy  all  the  material  require- 
ments, it  shall  also  grant  to  all  ample  opportunity  and 
time  for  the  study  of  science  and  art,  and  for  recreation. 

3. — Organization  of  Labor. 

In  a  number  of  other  very  essential  points  the  social- 
istic co-operative  system  will  differ  from  the  bourgeois 
individualistic  system.  The  cheap  and  poor  goods  that 
make  up  a  large  portion  of  bourgeois  production,  and 
necessarily  must  make  up  a  large  portion  of  it,  because 
a  majority  of  the  customers  can  afford  to  purchase  only 
cheap  goods  that  wear  out  quickly,  will  be  eliminated. 
Only  the  best  will  be  produced  that  will  last  long  and 
will  not  have  to  be  renewed  as  often.  The  fads  and  fol- 
lies of  fashion  that  only  favor  extravagance  and  bad 
taste  will  disappear.  Doubtless  our  wearing  apparel  will 
be  better  suited  to  its  purpose  and  more  tasty  than  to- 
day— for  the  fashions  of  the  last  century,  especially  those 
of  the  men,  have  been  conspicuous  by  their  bad  taste — 
but  new  fashions  will  no  longer  be  introduced  every  few 
months.  The  present  follies  of  fashion  are  caused,  on 
the  one  hand,  by  the  competition  of  women  among  them- 
selves, and  on  the  other  by  conceit  and  ostentation  and 
the  desire  to  display  one's  wealth.  Moreover,  a  great 
many  persons  depend  upon  these  follies  of  fashion  to- 
day, and  it  is  to  their  interest  to  encourage  and  stimu- 
late them.  Together  with  the  follies  of  fashion  in  dress, 
the  madness  of  fashion  in  the  style  of  dwellings  will  dis- 
appear. Here  eccentricity  is  rampant  to-day.  Styles 
that  have  required  centuries  to  become  evolved  among 


The  Socialization  of  Society  381 

various  nations — we  are  no  longer  satisfied  with  Euro- 
pean styles,  but  turn  to  those  of  the  Japanese,  Indians, 
Chinese,  etc. — are  used  up  in  a  few  years  and  set  aside. 
Persons  engaged  in  mechanical  arts  hardly  know  what 
to  do  with  all  the  designs  and  models.  They  have  barely 
adapted  themselves  to  one  style,  trusting  to  recover  their 
expenses,  when  a  new  style  appears  that  necessitates 
further  sacrifices  of  time  and  money  and  of  physical  and 
mental  forces.  In  this  mad  rushing  from  one  fashion  to 
another  and  from  one  style  to  another  the  nervousness 
of  our  age  is  vividly  reflected.  No  one  would  claim  that 
there  is  any  sense  or  reason  in  this  rush  and  haste,  or 
that  it  might  be  regarded  as  a  healthful  state  of  society. 

Socialism  will  give  greater  stability  to  the  habits  of 
life.  It  will  make  rest  and  enjoyment  possible  and  will 
liberate  us  from  the  present  haste  and  excitement.  Nerv- 
ousness, the  scourge  of  our  age,  will  disappear. 

Work  will  be  made  as  agreeable  as  possible.  To  ac- 
complish this,  the  places  where  production  is  carried  on 
will  be  furnished  practically  and  tastily,  every  means 
will  be  resorted  to  that  danger  may  be  eliminated,  and 
that  evil  smells,  smoke,  etc.,  and  all  unpleasant  and 
harmful  factors  will  be  done  away  with.  At  first  the 
new  society  will  produce  with  the  means  of  production 
taken  over  from  the  old  society.  But  these  are  insuf- 
ficient. The  workshops  are  scattered  and  are  not  prop- 
erly constructed  or  furnished,  and  tools  and  machinery 
do  not  come  up  to  the  demands  of  the  great  number  of 
persons  employed  and  their  desire  for  safety  and  com- 
fort. To  create  a  great  many  large,  light,  airy,  well- 
equipped  workshops  becomes  an  imminent  necessity. 
The  arts  and  crafts,  genius  and  skill,  are  immediately 
given  a  vast  realm  of  activity.  All  branches  of  machine 
manufacture  and  the  manufacture  of  tools,  the  building 
trades  and  the  trades  of  interior  decoration  find  ample 
opportunity  for  occupation.  Whatever  the  human  mind 
is  able  to  invent  in  the  way  of  convenient  and  agreeable 
buildings,  appropriate  ventilation,  lighting  and  heating, 
and  technical  and  mechanical  improvements,  will  be  in- 
stituted. To  save  motor-power,  light  and  heat,  as  well 
as  time  and  labor,  and  to  insure  the  comfort  of  the  work- 
ers, it  will  become  desirable  to  concentrate  the  work- 


382         Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

shops  in  definite  places.  The  dwellings  will  be  separated 
from  the  workshops  and  freed  from  the  unpleasantness 
of  industrial  activity;  and  the  unpleasantness  will  be  di- 
minished and  finally  abolished  by  all  sorts  of  institutions 
nad  appliances.  Even  the  present  status  of  technical 
knowledge  gives  us  sufficient  means  to  deprive  the  dan- 
gerous occupations,  like  mining,  the  chemical  trades,  etc., 
of  their  dangers  entirely.  But  these  means  are  not  ap- 
plied in  bourgeois  society,  because  they  entail  a  heavy 
expense  and  because  no  one  is  duty  bound  to  do  more 
for  the  protection  of  the  workingman  than  is  absolutely 
necessary.  The  dangers  of  mining,  for  instance,  could  be 
removed  by  working  the  mine  in  a  different  manner,  by 
a  thorough  system  of  ventilation,  by  the  installation  of 
electric  light,  by  a  considerable  shortening  of  the  hours 
of  work,  and  by  a  frequent  change  of  shifts.  It  does  not 
require  special  ingenuity  to  find  safety  appliances  that 
will  make  accidents  in  the  building  trade  next  to  im- 
possible and  to  make  this  sort  of  work  particularly  agree- 
able. For  instance,  ample  contrivances  might  be  made 
to  shield  the  workers  at  large  buildings  and  at  all  out-of- 
door  work  from  the  sun  and  the  rain.  In  socialistic  so- 
ciety, which  will  control  an  abundance  of  labor  power,  it 
will  also  be  a  simple  matter  to  have  frequent  relays  of 
new  workers  and  to  concentrate  certain  tasks  upon  defi- 
nite seasons  or  definite  hours  of  the  day. 

The  problem  of  abolishing  dust,  smoke,  grime  and  un- 
pleasant odors,  can  also  be  solved  entirely  even  to-day 
by  chemistry  and  mechanics.  But  it  is  not  done,  or  in- 
sufficiently done,  because  the  private  employers  do  not 
care  to  meet  the  heavy  expense.  The  future  places  of 
production,  wherever  they  may  be,  below  the  earth  or 
above,  will  differ  most  favorably  from  the  present  ones. 
In  private  industry  improved  appliances  are  mainly  a 
question  of  money.  If  they  pay  they  will  be  established. 
If  they  do  not  pay,  the  health  and  life  of  the  workingman 
are  of  no  concern.* 


*"Capital,"  says  the  "Quarterly  Reviewer,"  "flees  tumult  and  quar- 
rel and  is  of  a  timid  nature.  That  is  true,  but  it  is  not  the  whole 
truth.  Capital  abhors  the  absence  of  profits  or  very  small  profits  as 
nature  abhors  empty  space.  With  appropriate  profits,  capital  be- 


The  Socialization  of  Society  383 

In  socialistic  society  the  question  of  profits  will  have 
ceased  to  exist.  This  society  will  recognize  no  other 
consideration  but  the  welfare  of  its  members.  What  is 
to  their  advantage  must  be  established.  What  is  likely 
to  harm  them  must  be  refrained  from.  No  one  will  be 
compelled  to  enter  into  dangerous  undertakings.  If 
tasks  are  undertaken  that  entail  dangers  one  may  be  as- 
sured that  there  will  be  many  volunteers,  all  the  more  so 
because  the  undertakings  will  not  serve  destruction  but 
the  advancement  of  civilization. 

4.— The  Growth  of  the  Productivity  of  Labor. 

A  far-reaching  appliance  of  motor-power,  and  of  the 
most  perfect  machines  and  tools,  a  detailed  division  of 
labor  and  a  skillful  combination  of  the  various  forces, 
will  so  heighten  the  productivity  of  labor  that  the  neces- 
sary quantities  of  all  commodities  can  be  produced,  not- 
withstanding a  considerable  shortening  of  the  hours  of 
work.  Increased  production  will  be  to  the  common  ad- 
vantage of  all.  The  share  of  each  individual  increases 
with  the  productivity  of  labor,  and  the  increased  pro- 
ductivity of  labor  again  makes  it  possible  to  reduce  the 
time  required  for  the  performance  of  socially  necessary 
labor. 

Among  the  motor  powers  that  will  be  applied,  elec- 
tricity will  most  likely  hold  the  foremost  place.  Bour- 
geois society  everywhere  presses  it  into  service,  and  the 
more  this  is  done  the  better  it  is  for  general  progress. 
The  revolutionizing  effect  of  the  most  powerful  of  all 
natural  forces  will  only  hasten  the  overthrow  of  the 
bourgeois  world  and  help  to  usher  in  Socialism.  But 
only  in  socialistic  society  will  the  force  be  generally  ap- 
plied and  turned  to  the  best  advantage.  Both  as  a  motor- 
power  and  as  a  source  of  light  and  heat  it  will  contribute 


comes  bold.  If  ten  percent,  are  insured,  it  can  be  applied  every- 
where ;  20  percent.,  and  it  becomes  aggressive ;  50  percent.,  positively 
reckless ;  for  100  percent,  it  tramples  all  human  laws  under  foot ;  300 
percent.,  and  there  is  no  crime  it  will  not  risk  even  at  the  peril  of  the 
gallows.  If  tumult  and  quarrel  bring  profit,  it  will  encourage  both." 
Karl  Marx — Capital. 


384         Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

largely  to  the  improved  standard  of  living  of  society. 
Electricity  is  distinguished  from  every  other  force  by  the 
fact  that  it  exists  in  nature  in  abundance.  Our  streams, 
high  and  low  tide  of  the  sea,  wind  and  sunlight  will  fur- 
nish countless  horse-powers  when  we  shall  thoroughly 
understand  how  to  apply  them. 

"A  wealth  of  energy  that  by  far  exceeds  all  demands  is 
furnished  by  those  parts  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  that 
are  so  regularly  subjected  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  that  it 
might  be  applied  to  regular  technical  operations.  Per- 
haps it  would  not  be  an  exaggerated  precaution  if  a  na- 
tion would  even  now  secure  a  share  in  such  places.  The 
required  areas  need  not  even  be  very  large ;  a  few  square 
miles  in  Northern  Africa  would  suffice  for  the  require- 
ments of  a  country  like  the  German  Empire.  By  concen- 
trating the  heat  of  the  sun  a  high  temperature  can  be 
produced,  and  thereby  everything  else — portable  me- 
chanical work,  charging  of  batteries,  light  and  heat,  and, 
by  electrolysis,  even  fuel."*  The  man  who  opens  up  these 
vistas  is  not  a  dreamer,  but  an  appointed  professor  at  the 
Berlin  University  and  president  of  the  Royal  Physical 
and  Technical  Institute,  a  man  who  ranks  high  in  the 
scientific  world.  At  the  79th  congress  of  the  British  As- 
sociation in  Winnipeg  (during  August,  1909),  the  famous 
English  physicist,  Sir  S.  Thompson,  said :  "The  day  is 
not  too  far  distant  when  our  life  will  be  revolutionized 
by  applying  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Man  will  liberate  him- 
self from  his  dependence  upon  coal-and-water  power,  and 
all  large  cities  will  be  surrounded  by  immense  apparatus, 
real  sunbeam  traps,  into  which  the  heat  of  the  sun  will 
be  gathered,  and  the  obtained  energy  will  be  stored  away 
in  tremendous  reservoirs.  It  is  the  force  of  the  sun, 
stored  away  in  coal,  in  waterfalls,  in  nourishment,  that 
performs  all  the  world's  work.  How  great  is  this  tribute 
of  force  that  the  sun  pours  down  upon  us  becomes  evi- 
dent when  we  consider  the  fact  that  the  warmth  received 
by  the  earth  when  the  sun  is  high  and  the  sky  is  clear, 
according  to  the  researches  of  Langley,  equals  an  energy 
of  7000  horse-powers  per  acre.  Although  our  engineers 

*"The  Energy  of  Labor  and  Appliance  of  the  Electric  Current"  by 
Fr.  Kohlrausch.  Leipsic,  1900. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  385 

have  not  yet  found  the  way  to  apply  this  gigantic  source 
of  power,  I  do  not  doubt  that  they  will  ultimately  succeed 
in  finding  it.  When  the  supply  of  coal  in  the  bowels  of  the 
earth  has  been  exhausted,  when  the  water-powers  will  no 
longer  suffice  to  meet  our  requirements,  then  we  will  ob- 
tain from  this  source  all  the  energy  needed  to  complete 
the  work  of  the  world.  Then  the  centers  of  industry  will 
be  removed  to  the  glowing  deserts  of  Sahara,  and  the  va- 
lue of  the  land  will  be  measured  by  how  well  it  is  suited 
to  the  erection  of  the  great  'sunbeam  traps.'  "*  Accord- 
ing to  this,  our  anxiety  that  we  might  at  some  time  lack 
fuel,  is  removed.  The  inventions  of  the  accumulators 
would  make  it  possible  to  store  a  large  quantity  of  force 
away  for  future  use  at  any  time  and  place ;  so  that,  be- 
sides the  power  furnished  by  sun  and  tide,  the  power  fur- 
nished by  the  wind  and  by  mountain  torrents,  which  can 
be  obtained  only  periodically,  might  be  stored  and  ap- 
plied. So  there  may  finally  be  no  human  task  for  which 
motor  power  cannot  be  supplied  if  necessary.  Only  by 
the  assistance  of  electricity  has  it  become  possible  to  em- 
ploy water-power  on  a  large  scale.  According  to  T. 
Koehn,  eight  European  states  have  the  following  supply 
of  water-power  at  their  disposal. 

Horse-  Per  1000 

powers  inhabitants 

Great  Britain 963,000  23.1 

Germany 1,425,900  24.5 

Switzerland   1,500,000  138 

Italy 5,500,000  150 

France  5,857,000  169 

Austria  and  Hungary 6,460,000  454-5 

Sweden 6,750,000  1290 

Norway  7,500,000  3409 

Of  the  German  states,  Baden  and  Bavaria  control  the 
largest  amount  of  water-power.     Baden  alone  can  obtain 


*As  early  as  1864,  Augustin  Mouchot  made  an  attempt  to  make 
the  heat  of  the  sun  serve  industrial  purposes  directly  and  constructed 
a  sun-machine  that  was  improved  by  Pifre.  The  largest  sun-machine 
(heliomotor)  is  in  California  and  serves  as  an  apparatus  for  pump- 
ing. The  water  in  the  well  is  pumped  up  at  the  rate  of  11,000  litres 
a  minute. 


386        Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society. 

200,000  horse-powers  at  the  Upper  Rhine.  Bavaria  has  it 
its  disposal  300,000  horse-powers  that  have  so  far  not 
been  applied,  besides  100,000  that  are  applied.  Professor 
Rehbock  estimates  that  the  theoretical  energy  of  the  en- 
tire amount  of  water  flowing  upon  the  surface  of  the 
earth  amounts  to  eight  thousand  million  horse-powers. 
If  only 'the  sixteenth  part  of  this  could  be  efficiently  ap- 
plied, 500  millions  of  permanently  serviceable  horse-pow- 
ers could  still  be  won,  an  amount  of  energy  ten  times  as 
great  as  the  energy  obtained  by  the  mining  of  coal  dur- 
ing the  year  1907,  approximately  calculated  at  1000  mil- 
lion tons.  Although  such  calculations  are  of  a  purely 
theoretical  character  at  present,  they  still  show  what 
achievements  we  may  anticipate  in  the  future  from  the 
use  of  "white  coal."  The  Niagara  Falls  alone,  which 
flow  from  lakes  covering  an  area  of  231,880  kilometers — 
about  43  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area  of  Germany — might 
furnish  more  water-power  than  exists  in  England,  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland  combined. **  According  to  another 
calculation  quoted  in  an  official  report,  the  United  States 
have  water-power  at  their  disposal  of  no  less  than  twenty 
million  horse-powers,  which  represent  an  equivalent  of 
three  hundred  million  tons  of  coal  annually.*  The  mills 
that  will  be  driven  by  means  of  this  white  or  "green" 
coal,  with  the  force  of  the  gushing  mountain  streams  and 
waterfalls,  will  have  no  smokestacks  and  no  fire. 

Electricity  will  also  make  it  possible  to  more  than 
double  the  speed  of  our  railroads.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  nineties  of  the  last  century,  Mr.  Meems,  in  Baltimore, 
declared  it  to  be  possible  to  construct  an  electric  car  that 
would  make  300  kilometers  an  hour,  and  Professor  Elihu 
Thomson,  in  Lynn,  believed  that  electric  motors  could  be 
constructed  that  would  make  it  possible  to  cover  260 
kilometers  in  an  hour.  These  expectations  have  nearly 
been  realized.  The  trial-rides  made  on  the  military  rail- 
way Berlin-Zossen,  during  1901  and  1902,  showed  the 
possibility  of  speed  up  to  150  kilometers  an  hour.  Dur- 
ing experiments  made  in  1903,  the  Siemens  car  attained  a 


*T.  Koehn — Some  Large  European  Water- Power  Plants  and  Their 
Economic  Significance. 

**Supply  and  Distribution  of  Cotton.     Washington,  1908. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  387 

speed  of  201  kilometers,  and  that  of  the  General  Electric 
Company,  208  kilometers.  In  the  succeeding  years  steam 
locomotives  have  also  attained  a  speed  of  150  kilometers 
an  hour,  and  more.  The  present  aim  is  to  attain  200 
kilometers  per  hour.  Already,  August  Sherl  has  entered 
the  arena  with  his  new  project  of  rapid  transit,  which 
relegates  the  existing  railway  lines  to  freight  service  and 
proposes  to  connect  the  large  cities  by  monorail  train 
service,  with  a  speed  of  200  kilometers.* 

The  question  of  transforming  railroad  service  from 
steam  into  electricity  is  a  current  topic  in  England,  Aus- 
tria, Italy,  and  America.  Between  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia an  electric  train  is  to  run  at  a  speed  of  200  kilo- 
meters an  hour. 

The  speed  of  ocean  vessels  will  increase  in  the  same 
manner.  Here  the  determining  factor  is  the  steam  tur- 
bine.** "It  holds  the  foremost  place  in  technical  interest 
at  present.  It  seems  destined  to  displace  the  piston. 
While  most  engineers  still  regarded  the  steam  turbine  as 
a  task  of  the  future,  it  had  become  a  present-dav  problem 
that  attracted  the  attention  of  the  entire  world  of  tech- 
nics by  its  success.  It  remained  for  electrotechnics,  with 
its  rapidly  running  machinery  to  create  a  large  field  for 
the  practical  application  of  this  new  power  engine.  The 
by  far  greatest  number  of  all  steam-turbines  in  use  to- 
day serves  to  drive  dynamos.f  The  turbine  has  espe- 
cially proved  its  superiority  over  the  piston  in  naviga- 
tion. The  English  steamship  "Lusitania,"  which  is 
equipped  with  steam-turbines,  during  August,  1909,  made 
the  journey  from  Ireland  to  New  York  in  4  days  n  hours 
and  42  minutes/ft  with  an  average  speed  of  25.85  knots  an 


*In  1908,  the  Prussian  department  of  public  works  decided  to 
transform  the  steam-railways  Leipsic-Bitterfeld,  Magdeburg  and 
Leipsic,  Halle  into  electric  railways. 

**While  the  old  steam-engine  turns  the  driving-wheels  in  a  round- 
about way  (by  the  transmission  of  the  motion  of  the  piston  rods), 
the  steam-turbine  produces  a  direct  rotary  motion,  like  the  wind 
turns  the  wind-mill. 

fC.  Matchoss — The  Evolution  of  the  Steam-Engine. 

ftDuring  September,  1910,  the  Mauretania  broke  this  record  by 
hour  and  one  minute.  — Tr. 


388        Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

hour.  The  steamship  "America,"  constructed  in  1863,  the 
fastest  vessel  at  the  time,  made  12.5  knots  an  hour.*  The 
day  is  not  distant  when  the  problem  of  electric  propellers 
for  large  vessels  will  be  satisfactorily  solved.  They  are 
already  in  use  with  smaller  vessels.  Simplicity,  safety, 
good  self-regulation,  and  absence  of  shaking  make  the 
steam-turbine  the  ideal  power  for  the  creation  of  electric 
energy  on  board.  Electricity  will  eventually  be  generally 
applied  to  both  railway  and  steamship  service. 

By  electricity  the  technics  of  moving  loads  has  also 
been  revolutionized.  "Steam-power,  having  made  it  pos- 
sible to  construct  lifting-engines  with  natural  force,  elec- 
tric transmission  of  power  led  to  a  complete  revolution  in 
the  construction  of  lifting-machines  by  giving  these  ma- 
chines freedom  of  motion  and  constant  readiness  for 
use/'  Electric  power  has,  among  other  things,  led  to  a 
complete  transformation  in  the  construction  of  the 
cranes.  "With  its  massive  curved  beak  of  rolled  iron, 
resting  upon  a  heavy  foundation  of  stone-masonry,  with 
slow  motions  and  the  hissing  noise  of  the  puffed-out 
steam,  the  steam-crane  conveys  the  impression  of  resem- 
bling a  gigantic,  prehistoric  monster.  When  it  has 
grasped  a  load  it  exhibits  a  tremendous  power  for  lifting, 
but  it  needs  the  assistance  of  human  beings,  who,  by 
means  of  chains,  fasten  the  weights  to  its  hook.  Owing 
to  its  clumsiness  and  slow  motions  it  is  serviceable  only 
for  the  lifting  of  very  heavy  loads,  but  not  where  quick 
action  is  needed.  Even  externally  the  modern  electric 
crane  presents  an  entirely  different  aspect.  We  behold 
graceful  steel  trellis-work  stretched  above  the  hall,  and 
from  this  is  stretched  out  a  slender  pair  of  tongs,  which 
is  movable  in  all  directions.  The  whole  mechanism  is 
controlled  by  a  single  man.  By  means  of  a  gentle  pres- 
sure on  the  levers,  he  directs  the  electric  currents  and 
drives  the  slender  steel  limbs  of  the  crane  to  rapid  action. 


*During  the  fifties  of  the  last  century,  the  sailing  vessels  took  about 
six  weeks  to  reach  New  York.  The  steamers  crossed  in  two  weeks. 
During  the  nineties,  the  voyage  was  made  in  a  week,  and  now  it  is 
made  in  5^  days.  As  a  result  of  this  progress,  the  two  continents 
are  brought  nearer  to  each  other  now  than  Berlin  and  Vienna  were 
a  century  ago. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  389 

Unaided,  they  grasp  the  glowing  steel  and  whirl  it 
through  the  air,  while  no  other  noise  is  heard  but  the  low 
buzzing  of  the  electro-motors."*  Without  the  aid  of 
these  machines  the  steadily  increasing  transportation  of 
masses  of  goods  would  not  be  possible.  By  a  compari- 
son of  the  wharf-crane  at  Pola  and  that  at  Kiel,  the  de- 
velopment, in  regard  to  the  increase  of  lifting-power  from 
the  middle  to  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century,  may  be 
judged.  The  lifting-power  of  the  former  was  60  tons, 
that  of  the  latter,  200  tons.  The  manufacture  of  Besse- 
mer steel  only  is  possible  when  rapidly  working  lifting- 
machines  are  at  hand,  for  otherwise  the  tremendous 
quantities  of  liquid  steel  that  are  produced  in  a  short 
time  could  not  be  transported  in  the  casting-moulds.  In 
the  iron-works  of  Krupp,  in  Essen  alone,  608  cranes  are 
in  action,  having  an  aggregate  lifting-power  of  6513  tons, 
equal  to  a  freight  train  of  650  cars.  The  low  cost  of 
freight,  which  is  a  condition  of  present-day  international 
commerce,  would  not  be  possible,  could  not  the  capital 
invested  in  vessels  be  put  to  such  intense  use  by  the 
rapid  process  of  unloading.  The  equipping  of  a  vessel 
with  electric  cranes  led  to  a  reduction  in  the  annual  cost 
of  traffic  from  23,000  to  13,000  marks,  almost  bygone-half. 
And  this  comparison  takes  into  consideration  only  the 
progress  of  a  single  decade. 

The  technics  of  navigation  and  transportation  present 
new  achievements  almost  daily  along  all  lines.  The 
problem  of  aerial  navigation,  which  seemed  insoluble  but 
two  decades  ago,  is  practically  solved.  At  present  the 
dirigible  balloons  and  flying  machines  do  not  serve  the 
easier  and  cheaper  transportation  of  the  masses,  but  only 
sport  and  military  purposes.  But  later  on  they  will  en- 
hance the  productive  forces  of  society.  Great  progress 
has  also  been  made  by  wireless  telegraphy;  its  indus- 
trial value  grows  each  day.  In  a  few  years,  accordingly, 
traffic  will  be  placed  on  a  new  basis. 

Mining,  too,  is  in  a  state  of  transformation  at  present 
that  still  seemed  inconceivable  ten  years  ago.  Electricity 


*O.  Kammerer — The  Technics  of  Moving  Loads,  Formerly  and  at 
the  Present  Time.    Berlin,  1907. 


390        Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society. 

has  been  introduced  and  has  revolutionized  the  machines, 
the  pumps,  and  the  winding-engines. 

Marvelous  are  the  prospects  revealed  by  the  former 
French  minister  of  public  instruction,  Professor  Berthelot 
(died  March  18,  1907),  in  an  address  on  the  future  sig- 
nificance of  chemistry,  delivered  at  a  banquet  of  the 
syndicate  of  manufacturers  of  chemicals.  In  this  ad- 
dress, Mr.  Berthelot  depicted  the  possible  achievements 
of  chemistry  in  the  year  2000,  and,  though  his  descrip- 
tion contains  some  humorous  exaggerations,  it  also  con- 
tains much  that  is  true,  of  which  the  following  is  a  brief 
synopsis.  Mr.  Berthelot  gave  a  resume  of  what  chem- 
istry had  accomplished  in  a  few  decades  and  enumerated, 
among  other  things:  The  manufacture  of  sulphuric 
acid,  of  soda,  bleaching  and  dyeing,  beet-sugar,  thera- 
peutic alcaloids,  gas,  gilding  and  silvering,  etc.  Then 
came  electro-chemistry,  which  completely  transformed 
metallurgy,  the  chemistry  of  explosives,  which  provided 
mining  and  warfare  with  new  engines,  and  the  marvels 
of  organic  chemistry  in  the  manufacture  of  colors,  per- 
fumes, therapeutic  and  antiseptic  remedies,  etc.  But  all 
this,  said  the  lecturer,  was  only  a  beginning.  Far  greater 
problems  would  soon  be  solved.  In  the  year  2000,  agri- 
culture and  peasants  would  have  ceased  to  exist,  as  chem- 
istry would  have  made  cultivation  of  the  soil  superfluous. 
There  would  be  no  coal-mines  and,  accordingly,  no 
miners'  strikes.  Fuel  would  be  replaced  by  chemical  and 
physical  processes.  Tariff  and  warfare  would  be  abol- 
ished ;  aerial  navigation,  employing  chemicals  as  a  means 
of  locomotion  would  have  done  away  with  these  anti- 
quated institutions.  The  problem  of  industry  consists  in 
finding  sources  of  power  that  are  inexhaustible  and  can 
be  renewed  with  the  least  possible  amount  of  labor.  Un- 
til now  we  have  generated  steam  by  the  chemical  energy 
of  burned  coal.  But  the  coal  is  difficult  to  obtain,  and  the 
supply  is  diminishing  daily.  It  becomes  necessary  to 
utilize  the  heat  of  the  sun  and  the  heat  inside  the  earth. 
There  is  good  reason  to  hope  that  both  these  sources  will 
find  unlimited  application.  Thereby  the  source  of  all 
heat  and  of  all  industry  would  be  made  accessible.  If 
water-power  were  also  applied,  all  imaginable  machines 
might  be  run  on  the  earth.  This  source  of  power  would 


The  Socialization  of  Society  391 

barely  diminish  in  centuries.  By  means  of  the  warmth 
of  the  earth  many  chemical  problems  might  be  solved, 
among  others  the  chemical  production  of  food.  Theo- 
retically this  problem  is  already  solved.  The  synthesis 
of  fats  and  oils  is  long  since  known,  sugar  and  the  hy- 
drates of  carbon  are  known  also,  and  the  synthesis  of  the 
nitrogen-compounds  will  soon  become  known.  The 
problem  of  food  is  a  purely  chemical  one.  As  soon  as  the 
necessary  cheap  power  could  be  obtained,  by  means  of 
carbon  from  carbonic  acid,  oxygen  and  hydrogen  from 
water,  and  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere,  food  of  all 
kinds  would  be  produced.  What  had  heretofore  been 
done  by  the  plants  would  henceforth  be  done  by  indus- 
try, and  the  products  of  industry  would  be  more  perfect 
than  those  of  nature  The  time  would  come  when  every 
one  would  carry  a  box  of  chemicals  in  his  pocket  from 
which  he  would  satisfy  his  need  of  nourishment  in  albu- 
men, fat  and  hydrates  of  carbon,  regardless  of  time  and 
seasons,  of  rain  and  drought,  of  frost,  hail  and  destruc- 
tive insects.  This  would  lead  to  a  transformation  that 
was  as  yet  beyond  our  conception.  Orchards,  vinevards 
and  pastures  would  disappear.  Man  would  become  more 
gentle  and  humane,  because  he  would  no  longer  live  upon 
the  murder  and  destruction  of  living  beings.  Then  the 
difference  between  fertile  and  unfertile  regions  would 
also  disappear,  and  perhaps  the  deserts  would  become  the 
favorite  resorts  of  man,  since  they  are  healthier  than  the 
damp  and  marshy  plains  where  agriculture  is  carried  on 
at  present.  Then  art  and  all  the  beauties  of  human  life 
would  attain  their  fullest  development.  The  earth  would 
no  longer  be  disfigured  by  the  geometrical  figures  drawn 
on  its  surface  by  agriculture,  but  would  become  a  garden 
in  which  grass,  flowers,  shrubs  and  forests  might  be 
grown  at  will ;  all  humanity  would  dwell  in  plenty,  in  a 
golden  age.  But  man  would  not  fall  a  victim  to  laziness 
and  corruption.  Work  is  needful  to  happiness,  and  man 
would  work  as  ever,  since  he  worked  for  his  own  welfare, 
for  the  development  of  his  mental,  moral  and  aesthetic 
possibilities. 

The  reader  may  accept  as  true  from  this  address  of 
Berthelot  whatever  he  chooses.     The  fact  remains  that 


392          Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

future  development  will  lead  to  a  tremendous  improve- 
ment in  the  quantity,  quality  and  variety  of  products,  and 
that  the  comforts  of  life  of  coming  generations  will  in- 
crease to  a  degree  that  we  can  barely  conceive  to-day. 

Professor  Elihu  Thomson  agrees  with  Werner  Sie- 
mens, who  declared  at  the  convention  of  scientists  in 
Berlin,  in  1887,  that  it  would  become  possible  by  means 
of  electricity  to  transform  the  elements  directly  into  food. 
Werner  Siemens  held  the  opinion  that  it  might  be  possi- 
ble, at  a  remote  time,  to  produce  artificially  a  hydrate  of 
carbon,  as  grape-sugar  or  starch,  whereby  the  possibility 
would  be  given  "to  make  bread  of  stones."  The  chem- 
ist, Dr.  H.  Meyer,  declared  that  it  would  be  possible  to 
make  ligneous  fibre  a  source  of  human  nourishment.  In 
the  meantime  (1890),  ,Emil  Fisher  has  actually  produced 
grape-sugar  artifically,  and  has  thereby  made  a  discovery 
that  Werner  Siemens  considered  possible  only  "at  a  re- 
mote time.''  Since  then  chemistry  has  made  still  further 
progress.  Indigo,  vanilla  and  camphor  have  been  arti- 
ficially produced.  In  1906,  W.  Loeb  succeeded  in  achiev- 
ing the  assimilation  of  carbonic  acid,  outside  of  the  plant 
up  to  the  production  of  sugar  by  means  of  electric  ten- 
sion. In  1907  Emil  Fisher  obtained  one  of  the  most  com- 
plicated synthetic  bodies  that  is  closely  related  to 
natural  protein.  In  1908  Willstatter  and  Benz  produced 
pure  chlorophyl  and  proved  it  to  be  a  compound  of  mag- 
nesium. Thereby  the  main  problem  of  organic  chemistry 
—to  obtain  albumen — may  find  its  solution  in  a  future 
not  too  far  distant. 


5-  —  Removal    of    the    Contrast    between    Mental    and 
Manual   Work. 

A  need,  deeply  rooted  in  human  nature,  is  the  desire  for 
freedom  of  choice  and  for  the  opportunity  of  a  variation 
of  occupations.  Just  as  the  best  food  becomes  disgusting 
if  the  same  thing  is  constantly  placed  before  us,  so  an  oc- 
cupation repeated  daily  in  treadmill  fashion  weakens  and 
dulls.  Man  performs  his  task  mechanically  and  does 
what  he  must  do,  but  without  enthusiasm  or  joy.  A  num- 
ber of  talents  and  abilities  are  innate  in  every  human 


The  Socialization  of  Society  393 

being  that  need  but  to  be  awakened  in  order  to  find  ex- 
pression and  produce  favorable  results.  Only  thereby 
man  becomes  a  perfect  human  being.  Socialistic  society 
will  offer  ample  opportunity  for  the  satisfaction  of  this 
desire  for  variation.  The  immense  increase  in  productive 
forces,  combined  with  a  simplified  process  of  work,  will 
not  only  make  it  possible  to  limit  the  hours  of  work  con- 
siderably, it  will  also  make  it  easy  to  master  a  number  of 
varied  accomplishments. 

The  old  system  of  apprenticeship  has  already  been 
abandoned.  It  still  exists,  and  is  possible  only  among 
undeveloped  and  antiquated  forms  of  production,  as  rep- 
resented by  small  manufactures.  But  as  these  will  com- 
pletely disappear  in  the  new  society,  all  forms  and  institu- 
tions peculiar  to  them  will  disappear  also.  New  ones  will 
take  their  place.  Even  at  present  it  can  be  seen  in  any 
factory  how  few  workingmen  have  learned  and  practice  a 
definite  trade.  The  workingmen  employed  in  some  line 
of  production  or  other  may  have  learned  the  most  varied 
trades.  Usually  a  short  time  is  sufficient  for  them  to 
gain  experience  in  one  detail  of  the  process  of  production, 
and  to  this  one  detail  they  are  tied  down  then,  according 
to  the  prevailing  system  of  exploitation,  for  long  hours, 
without  the  slightest  variation,  and  without  any  regard 
for  their  personal  tastes  and  inclinations.  At  the  ma- 
chine they  become  machines.*  This  state  of  affairs,  too, 
will  be  removed  by  the  new  social  order.  There  will  be 
ample  time  to  practice  manual  skill  and  to  develop  the 
mechanical  arts.  Large,  splendidly  equipped  polytechni- 
cal  schools  will  make  it  easy  for  both  young  and  old  to 
learn  an  occupation.  Chemical  and  physical  laboratories, 
in  keeping  with  the  standards  of  these  sciences,  will  be 
erected,  and  capable  teachers  will  be  on  hand.  Only 
then  will  people  fully  recognize  what  a  wealth  of  talent 


*"The  great  mass  of  workingmen  in  England,  as  in  most  of  the 
other  countries,  have  so  little  free  choice  in  regard  to  their  occupa- 
tion and  place  of  residence,  they  depend  so  absolutely  upon  fixed 
rules  and  the  will  of  others,  as  could  be  possible  under  any  system 
with  the  exception  of  real  slavery."  John  Stuart  Mill — Political 
Economy. 


394        Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

and  ability  has  been  suppressed  or  wrongly  developed 
by  the  capitalistic  system  of  production.* 

Not  only  will  it  be  possible  to  satisfy  the  desire  for 
variation,  it  must  be  regarded  as  the  purpose  of  society 
to  satisfy  this  desire,  since  the  harmonious  development 
of  man  depends  upon  it. 

The  professional  types  that  we  meet  with  in  present- 
day  society — be  these  types  the  product  of  a  definite,  one- 
sided occupation  or  of  laziness — will  gradually  disap- 
pear. There  are  exceedingly  few  persons  to-day  who 
possess  the  possibility  of  a  variety  of  occupations. 
Rarely  one  finds  persons  so  favored  by  special  circum- 
stances, that  they  can  escape  the  monotony  of  their  daily 
task  and  can,  after  the  performance  of  physical  work,  re- 
cuperate by  mental  work.  On  the  other  hand,  we  some- 
times find  mental  workers  who  devote  part  of  their  time 
to  some  manual  work,  gardening  and  the  like.  The  bene- 
ficial effects  of  an  occupation  founded  on  a  variation  of 
mental  and  physical  work  are  obvious.  Such  occupation 
is  the  only  one  adapted  to  natural  needs.  It  is  taken  for 
granted,  of  course,  that  every  occupation  must  be  prac- 
ticed with  moderation  and  according  to  individual 
strength. 

In  his  book  on  "The  Significance  of  Science  and  Art," 
Count  Leo  Tolstoi  condemns  the  hypercritical  and  un- 
natural character  that  art  and  science  have  assumed  as  a 
result  of  our  unnatural  social  conditions.  He  roundly 
condemns  the  fact  that  present-day  society  holds  physical 
labor  in  contempt  and  advises  a  return  to  natural  con- 
ditions. He  asserts  that  every  human  being  who  wishes 
to  live  naturally  and  to  enjoy  life  should  spend  his  day — 
firstly,  at  physical  work  in  agriculture ;  secondly,  at  some 


*A  French  workingman,  who  has  returned  home  from  San  Fran- 
cisco, writes :  "I  would  have  never  believed  that  I  would  be  able  to 
practice  all  the  trades  that  I  have  practiced  in  California.  I  had  been 
firmly  convinced  that  I  was  good  for  nothing  except  printing.  But 
in  the  midst  of  these  adventurers  who  change  their  trade  more  read- 
ily than  their  shirt,  I  did  as  the  others.  Since  mining  was  not  suf- 
ficiently remunerative,  I  left  and  moved  into  the  city.  Here  I  suc- 
cessively became  typographer,  slater,  plumber,  etc.  As  a  result  of 
this  experience  of  being  fit  for  all  tasks,  I  feel  less  of  a  mollusc  and 
more  of  a  human  being."  Karl  Marx — Capital  Vol.  I. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  395 

manual  trade;  thirdly,  at  some  mental  occupation,  and 
fourthly,  in  intellectual  social  intercourse.  No  human  be- 
ing should  perform  more  than  eight  hours  of  physical 
work.  Tolstoi  himself  lived  up  to  this  ideal  and  claimed 
that  he  has  only  become  truly  human  since  he  adopted 
this  mode  of  life.  But  Tolstoi  overlooks  that  what 
is  possible  for  him,  the  man  of  independent  means, 
is  not  possible  for  the  vast  majority  of  people  under  pres- 
ent-day conditions.  A  man  or  woman  who  must  work 
ten  or  twelve  hours  daily,  and  sometimes  longer,  to  make 
a  bare  living,  and  who  has  grown  up  in  ignorance,  cannot 
adopt  Tolstoi's  mode  of  life.  Neither  can  all  those  adopt 
it  who  are  in  the  midst  of  the  struggle  for  existence  and 
must  conform  with  its  requirements ;  and  of  the  few  who 
might  live  in  this  manner,  many  would  not  wish  to.  It  is 
one  of  the  illusions  in  which  Tolstoi  indulges,  to  believe 
that  exhortations  and  examples  might  transform  societies. 
The  experience  made  by  Tolstoi,  in  regard  to  his  mode  of 
life,  proves  it  to  be  a  rational  one.  But  to  make  this 
mode  of  life  general,  different  social  conditions,  a  new 
society,  will  be  needed. 

The  coming  society  will  establish  such  conditions.  It 
will  produce  countless  scientists  and  artists,  but  all  of 
these  will  devote  a  part  of  the  day  to  physical  labor,  and 
the  remainder  of  the  day  they  will  devote  to  their  studies, 
their  arts  and  to  social  intercourse,  according  to  their 
tastes  and  wishes.* 


*\Vhat  people  may  achieve  under  favorable  conditions  of  develop- 
ment is  shown,  for  example,  by  the  life  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  He 
was  a  splendid  artist,  a  famous  sculpturer,  an  able  architect  and  en- 
gineer, a  military  engineer,  a  musician  and  an  extemporizer.  Ben- 
renuto  Cellini  was  a  famous  goldsmith,  an  excellent  modeller,  a  rec- 
ognized military  engineer,  a  good  soldier  and  a  capable  musician. 
Abraliam  Lincoln  was  a  wood-cutter,  a  farmer,  a  boatsman,  a  clerk 
and  a  lawyer,  before  he  became  president  of  the  United  States.  It 
may  be  said  without  exaggeration  that  most  people  are  engaged 
in  occupations  that  are  not  suited  to  their  abilities  because  their 
career  has  been  shaped,  not  by  choice,  but  by  the  force  of  circum- 
stances. Many  a  poor  professor  might  make  a  very  competent  shoe- 
maker, and  many  a  good  shoemaker  might  become  a  good  professor 
also. 


396        Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

The  present  contrast  between  mental  and  manual  work, 
a  contrast  that  is  intensified  by  the  ruling  classes,  who 
are  anxious  to  secure  their  mental  superiority  also,  will, 
accordingly,  have  to  be  removed. 

6. — Increase  of  Consumption. 

The  above  enumerated  facts  prove  that  panics,  crises, 
nad  unemployment  will  be.  impossible  in  future  society. 
Crises  arise  because  capitalistic  production,  incited  by  the 
desire  for  profit,  and  without  any  reliable  means  of  esti- 
mating the  true  demand,  leads  to  over-production  and  to 
over-stocking  of  the  market.  Under  capitalism  the  prod- 
ucts assume  the  character  of  goods  that  their  owners  in- 
deavor  to  exchange,  and  the  consumption  of  goods  de- 
pends upon  the  consumer's  purchasing  ability.  But  this 
purchasing  ability  is  very  limited  among  a  vast  majority 
of  the  population  who  are  not  paid  the  full  value  of  their 
labor  and  whose  services  are  not  wanted  if  their  employ- 
ers cannot  squeeze  profits  out  of  them.  Purchasing  abil- 
ity and  the  ability  to  consume  are  two  entirely  different 
matters  in  bourgeois  society.  Many  millions  are  in  need 
of  new  clothes,  shoes,  furniture,  linens  and  articles  of 
food,  but  they  have  no  money,  and  so  their  needs,  their 
ability  to  consume,  remains  unsatisfied.  The  market  is 
over-stocked,  but  the  masses  are  hungry;  they  wish  to 
work,  but  cannot  find  anyone  willing  to  purchase  their 
labor-power,  because  the  employers  can  derive  no  profits 
from  employing  them.  Perish,  become  a  vagabond,  a 
criminal,  I,  the  capitalist,  cannot  help  it,  because  I  cannot 
use  goods  that  I  cannot  sell  at  a  profit.  In  his  position 
the  capitalist  is  entirely  justified  in  taking  this  attitude. 

In  the  new  society  this  contradiction  will  be  removed. 
The  new  society  will  not  produce  "goods"  to  be  "bought" 
and  "sold,"  it  will  produce  commodities  for  consumption, 
not  for  any  other  purpose.  The  ability  to  consume  will 
not  be  limited  by  the  purchasing  ability  of  each  individu- 
al, but  by  the  common  ability  to  produce.  If  there  is  suf- 
ficient labor-power  and  sufficient  means  of  production, 
every  want  can  be  satisfied.  The  social  ability  to  con- 
sume knows  no  bounds  except  the  satisfaction  of  the  con- 
sumers. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  397 

If  there  will  be  no  "goods'"  in  the  new  society  there 
will  ultimately  be  no  money,  either.  Money  appears  to 
be  the  counterpart  of  goods,  but  is  goods  itself.  Yet,  at 
the  same  time,  money  is  the  social  equivalent,  the  stand- 
ard of  value  for  all  other  goods.  But  the  new  society 
will  not  produce  goods,  it  will  produce  commodities 
whose  manufacture  will  require  a  certain  measure  of  so- 
cial wTorking-time.  The  average  time  required  to  produce 
a  given  commodity  is  the  only  standard  by  which  it  will 
be  measured  for  social  consumption.  Ten  minutes  of  so- 
cial working-time  at  one  commodity  equal  ten  minutes  of 
social  working-time  at  another  commodity,  no  more  and 
no  less.  Society  will  not  wish  to  "earn,"  it  will  merely 
wish  to  bring  about  the  exchange  of  commodities  of  the 
same  quality  and  of  the  same  value  among  its  members, 
and  eventually  it  will  not  even  be  necessary  to  determine 
the  value.  Society  will  simply  produce  what  it  needs.  If 
it  should  become  evident,  for  instance,  that  three  hours 
of  work  daily  are  necessary  to  produce  all  the  required 
products,  three  hours  will  be  the  fixed  time.*  If  the 
means  of  production  should  be  improved  to  such  extent 
that  the  supply  can  be  furnished  by  two  hours  of  work, 
it  will  be  two  hours.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  demands 
should  grow  and  the  increased  productivity  of  the  process 
of  work  would  not  sufficice  to  satisfy  these  demands,  the 
working-time  would  be  lengthened. 

It  can  easily  be  calculated  how  much  social  labor  will 
be  necessary  for  the  manufacture  of  each  product.** 


*It  must  be  noted  again  and  again  that  production  will  be  or- 
ganized according  to  the  highest  scale  of  technical  development  and 
that  all  will  be  engaged  in  it,  so  that,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
a  working-day  of  three  hours  may  still  prove  too  long.  Owen,  who 
was  a  large  manufacturer  and  was  therefore  competent  to  judge, 
estimated — in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century — that  a  work- 
ing-day of  two  hours  would  be  sufficient. 

**"The  amount  of  social  labor  represented  by  a  given  product  need 
not  be  determined  in  a  round-about  way;  daily  experience  will  show 
directly  how  much  on  an  average  will  be  required.  Society  will  be 
able  to  calculate  how  many  hours  of  work  are  represented  by  a 
steam-engine,  a  hectolitre  of  wheat  of  the  last  harvest,  or  a  hundred 
square  yards  of  cloth  of  a  certain  quality.  Society  will  accord- 
ingly not  think  of  expressing  the  quantities  of  work  contained  in  the 


398        Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

Thereby  the  relation  of  this  portion  of  work  to  the  en- 
tire working-time  can  be  calculated. 

Any  kind  of  certificate,  a  printed  piece  of  paper,  gold  or 
tin,  enables  the  holder  to  exchange  same  for  various  kinds 
of  commodities.*  If  he  finds  that  his  wants  are  less  than 
what  he  receives  for  his  services,  he  can  work  less,  ac- 
cordingly. If  he  wishes  to  give  away  what  he  does  not 
use,  nobody  will  prevent  him  from  so  doing.  If  he  volun- 
tarily chooses  to  work  for  another,  so  that  the  other  one 
may  idle,  or  if  he  wishes  to  divide  his  share  of  the  social 
products,  no  one  will  restrain  him.  But  no  one  can  corn- 


products — that  will  then  be  directly  known — in  the  relative,  fluc- 
tuating, uncertain  manner  of  a  third  product,  inevitable  at  present, 
instead  of  expressing  them  by  their  natural,  adequate,  absolute  meas- 
ure-time. It  will  be  necessary  to  arrange  the  plan  of  production  in 
accordance  with  the  means  of  production,  including  labor-power. 
The  usefulness  of  the  various  commodities,  balanced  with  one  an- 
other and  with  the  amount  of  work  necessary  for  their  production 
will  ultimately  determine  the  plan.  Everything  will  be  adjusted  in 
a  very  simple  way  without  the  intercession  of  the  famous  Value'." 
Fr.  Engels — Mr.  Eugen  Duehring's  Transformation  of  Science. 

*Mr.  Eugen  Richter  in  his  "False  Doctrines"  is  so  amazed  by  the 
fact  that  in  socialistic  society  the  use  of  money  will  be  dropped  (it 
will  not  be  abolished  outright  but  will  simply  become  superfluous 
because  the  products  of  labor  will  no  longer  have  the  character  of 
goods),  that  he  devotes  a  special  chapter  to  this  incident.  The  thing 
that  especially  puzzles  him  is  that  it  will  be  immaterial  whether  the 
working  certificate  will  be  a  printed  piece  of  paper,  gold  or  tin.  He 
says :  "With  gold  the  demon  of  the  present  world  order  would  enter 
the  socialistic  state  again"  (Mr.  Richter  obstinately  overlooks  that 
eventually  there  will  be  only  a  socialistic  society,  not  a  socialistic 
"state,"  for  a  great  deal  of  his  argumentation  would  then  loose 
ground),  "for  gold  has  independent  value  as  a  metal  and  can  easily 
be  hoarded,  and  so  the  possession  of  pieces  of  gold  would  make  it 
possible  to  accumulate  values  to  escape  the  duty  to  work  and  even 
to  loan  out  money  on  interest." — One  must  consider  one's  readers 
very  stupid  to  place  such  bosh  before  them.  Mr.  Richter  who  can- 
not free  himself  from  the  conception  of  capital,  cannot  see  that  where 
there  is  no  capital,  no  goods,  there  can  be  no  money,  and  that  where 
there  is  neither  capital  nor  money  there  can  be  no  interest.  We 
should  like  to  know  how  a  member  of  socialistic  society  could 
"hoard"  his  golden  working  certificate  or  could  even  loan  it  on  in- 
terest, when  all  the  others  also  own  what  the  one  offers  and — on 
which  he  lives. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  399 

pel  him  to  work  for  another  person's  advantage,  no  one 
can  deprive  him  of  a  part  of  the  share  he  is  entitled  to 
for  his  services.  Everyone  will  be  able  to  satisfy  all  de- 
sires and  requirements  possible  of  fulfillment,  but  not  at 
the  expense  of  others.  He  receives  from  society  the 
equivalent  of  what  he  produces,  no  more  and  no  less,  and 
remains  free  from  exploitation. 

7.— Equal  Duty  to  Work  for  All. 

"But  how  will  you  discriminate  between  thrifty  and 
lazy,  intelligent  and  stupid  persons?"  That  is  one  of  the 
quetsions  most  frequently  asked  by  our  opponents,  and 
the  answer  we  give  them  puzzles  them  greatly.  But 
these  wise  questioners  never  stop  to  think  that,  among 
our  hierarchy  of  officials,  the  distinction  between  thrifty 
and  lazy,  intelligent  and  stupid  persons  is  not  made,  but 
that  the  length  of  service  usually  determines  the  salary 
and  promotion.  Teachers  and  professors — many  of 
whom  are  the  most  naive  questioners — have  their  salaries 
determined  by  the  position  they  fill,  not  by  the  value  of 
their  services.  In  many  cases  officials,  military  men  and 
scientists,  are  not  promoted  according  to  their  abilities, 
but  according  to  rank,  relationship,  friendship,  and  the 
favor  of  women.  That  wealth  is  not  measured  either  by 
intelligence  and  thrift,  may  be  seen  by  the  three-class- 
electoral-system  of  Prussia.  We  find  saloon-keepers, 
bakers  and  butchers,  many  of  whom  are  not  able  to 
speak  grammatically,  enrolled  in  the  first  class,  while  men 
of  intelligence  and  science,  the  highest  officials  of  the 
state  and  the  nation,  are  enrolled  in  the  second  or  third 
class.  There  will  be  no  difference  between  thrifty  and 
lazy,  intelligent  and  stupid  persons,  because  that  which 
we  understand  by  these  terms  will  have  disappeared.  So- 
ciety, for  instance,  calls  some  people  "lazy"  because  they 
have  been  thrown  out  of  employment,  have  been  driven 
to  a  life  of  vagabondage,  and  have  finally  become  real 
vagabonds.  We  also  apply  this  term  to  people  who  are 
the  victims  of  a  bad  education.  But  whoever  should 
venture  to  call  lazy  the  man  of  means  who  spends  his 
time  in  idleness  and  debauchery  would  commit  an  insult, 
for  the  rich  idler  is  a  "respectable"  man. 


400        Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

Now  what  aspect  will  matters  assume  in  the  new  so- 
ciety? All  will  develop  under  similar  conditions  of  life, 
and  everyone  will  perform  the  task  assigned  to  him  by 
ability  and  inclination.  Therefore  the  differences  in 
achievements  will  be  slight.*  The  social  atmosphere  that 
will  incite  each  to  excel  the  others  will  help  to  level  the 
distinctions.  If  a  person  should  realize  that  he  is  unable 
to  accomplish  in  one  line  of  work  what  others  accomplish, 
he  will  choose  some  other  line  better  suited  to  his 
strength  and  his  abilities.  Everyone  who  has  worked  to- 
gether with  a  great  many  persons  knows  that  people  who 
were  inefficient  at  one  task  have  proved  very  efficient 
when  given  another.  By  what  right  can  anyone  ask  for 
privileges?  If  some  person  is  so  incapacitated  by  nature 
that  it  is  quite  impossible  for  him  to  accomplish  what 
others  accomplish,  society  cannot  punish  him  for  the 
shortcomings  of  nature.  On  the  other  hand,  if  some  one 
has  been  endowed  by  nature  with  abilities  that  elevate 
him  above  the  others,  society  need  not  reward  him  for 
that  which  is  not  his  personal  merit.  It  must,  further- 
more, be  remembered  that  in  Socialistic  society  all  will 
have  the  same  opportunities  for  education,  so  that  all  can 
develop  their  knowledge  and  ability  in  accordance  with 
their  talents  and  inclinations.  As  a  result,  knowledge 
and  ability  will  be  far  more  developed  than  in  bourgeois 
society.  It  will  be  more  evenly  distributed  and  yet  more 
varied. 

When  Goethe,  during  a  journey  along  the  Rhine,  stud- 
ied the  Cathedral  of  Cologne,  he  discovered,  by  perusal 
of  the  architectural  deeds  that  the  architects  of  old  had 
paid  all  their  workingmen  alike  by  time;  they  did  so  be- 
cause they  desired  good  workmanship  conscientiously 
carried  out.  To  bourgeois  society  this  seems  an  anom- 
aly. Bourgeois  society  has  introduced  the  piece-work 


*"A11  normal  well  developed  human  beings  are  born  with  approx- 
imately the  same  degree  of  intelligence,  but  education,  laws  and  cir- 
cumstances make  them  differ  from  one  another.  Individual  interest, 
properly  understood,  is  identical  with  the  common  or  public  in- 
terest." Helvetius — Man  and  His  Education.  In  regard  to  the  great 
majority  of  men,  Helvetius  is  right;  what  does  differ  are  the  talents 
for  various  occupations. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  401 

system,  by  means  of  which  the  workingmen  compel  one 
another  to  overwork  and  make  it  all  the  easier  for  the 
employer  to  under-pay  and  to  resort  to  a  frequent  reduc- 
tion in  wages.  What  is  true  of  material  productivity  is 
equally  true  of  the  mental.  Man  is  the  product  of  time 
and  circumstances.  If  Goethe  had  been  born  in  the  fourth 
instead  of  in  the  eighteenth  century,  under  equally  favor- 
able circumstances,  instead  of  becoming  a  great  poet  and 
scientist  he  would  probably  have  become  a  great  father 
of  the  Church  who  might  have  outshone  St.  Augustine. 
Again,  if  Goethe  had  not  come  into  the  world  as  the  son 
of  a  rich  patrician  of  Frankfort,  but  as  the  son  of  a  poor 
shoemaker,  he  would  hardly  have  become  minister  to  the 
Grand-duke  of  Weimar,  but  would  have  lived  and  died  a 
respectable  master-shoemaker.  Goethe  himself  recog- 
nized of  what  great  advantage  it  was  to  him  to  have  been 
born  in  a  materially  and  socially  favorable  position  which 
helped  him  to  attain  his  development;  he  thus  expresses 
himself  in  "Wilhelm  Meister."  If  Napoleon  I.  had  been 
born  ten  years  later  he  would  never  have  become  Em- 
peror of  France.  Without  the  war  of  1870  to  1871,  Gam- 
betta  would  never  have  become  what  he  has  been.  If  a 
gifted  child  of  intelligent  parents  should  be  placed  among 
savages  it  would  become  a  savage.  Men  are  what  society 
has  made  them.  Ideas  are  not  the  product  of  higher  in- 
spiration sprung  from  the  brains  of  a  single  individual, 
but  they  are  a  product,  created  in  the  brains  of  the  indi- 
vidual by  the  social  life  and  activity  amidst  which  he 
lives  and  by  the  spirit  of  his  age.  Aristotle  could  not 
have  the  ideas  of  Darwin,  and  Darwin  had  to  reason 
differently  from  Aristotle.  We  all  reason  as  the  spirit 
of  our  age — that  is,  our  environment  and  its  phenomena 
— compels  us  to  reason.  That  explains  what  has  been 
frequently  observed,  that  different  people  sometimes  fol- 
low the  same  line  of  reasoning  simultaneously;  that  the 
same  inventions  and  discoveries  are  made  at  the  same 
time  at  places  situated  far  apart.  That  also  explains  that 
an  idea  expressed  fifty  years  ago  may  have  found  the 
world  indifferent,  but  the  same  idea  expressed  fifty  years 
later,  may  agitate  the  whole  world.  In  1415  Emperor 
Sigismund  could  dare  to  break  the  promise  given  Huss 
and  to  have  him  burned  at  the  stake  in  Constance.  In 


4O2        Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

1521,  Charles  V.,  although  a  far  greater  fanatic,  had  to 
permit  Luther  to  go  in  peace  from  the  diet  at  Worms. 
Ideas  are  the  product  of  social  co-operation,  of  social 
life.  What  is  true  in  regard  to  society  in  general,  is  es- 
pecially true  in  regard  to  the  various  social  classes  that 
compose  society  at  any  given  epoch  of  history.  Because 
every  class  has  its  peculiar  interests,  it  also  has  its  pe- 
culiar ideas  and  views.  These  conflicting  ideas  and  inter- 
ests have  led  to  the  class  struggles  that  filled  the  annals 
of  history  and  have  attained  their  culmination  in  the 
class  extremes  and  class  struggles  of  the  present  day. 
The  feelings,  thoughts  and  actions  of  a  person  are,  there- 
fore, determined  not  only  by  the  age  in  which  he  lives, 
but  also  by  the  class  to  which  he  belongs.  Without  mod- 
ern society  no  modern  ideas  could  exist.  This  is  clear  to 
everyone.  In  the  new  society — let  it  be  remembered — 
the  means  that  each  individual  will  employ  for  his  edu- 
cation and  development  will  DC  the  property  of  society. 
Society  cannot  feel  obliged  to  reward  particularly  what  it 
alone  has  made  possible,  its  own  product. 

So  much  in  regard  to  the  qualification  of  physical  and 
mental  labor.  From  this  the  further  conclusion  may  be 
drawn,  that  no  distinction  will  be  made  between  higher 
and  lower  grades  of  work;  as,  for  instance,  at  present 
mechanics  consider  themselves  superior  to  day-laborers 
who  perform  work  on  the  roads,  etc.  Society  will  have 
only  such  work  performed  as  is  socially  useful,  and  so 
every  kind  of  work  will  be  of  equal  social  value.  Should 
it  not  be  possible  to  perform  some  kinds  of  dirty  and  dis- 
agreeable work  by  means  of  mechanical  or  chemical  de- 
vices— which  will  undoubtedly  be  the  case,  to  judge  by 
the  present  rate  of  progress — and  should  there  be  no  vol- 
unteers, it  will  be  the  duty  of  each  worker  to  perform  his 
share  of  such  work  when  his  turn  comes.  No  false  pride 
and  no  irrational  disdain  of  useful  labor  will  be  recog- 
nized. These  exist  only  in  our  state  of  drones,  where 
idleness  is  considered  enviable,  and  where  those  workers 
are  the  most  despised  whose  tasks  are  the  hardest  and 
most  unpleasant  ones,  and  often  the  most  needful  to  so- 
ciety. To-day  the  most  disagreeable  tasks  are  the  ones 
most  poorly  paid.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  we  have  a 
great  many  workers  who  have  been  maintained  at  a  low 


The  Socialization  of  Society  403 

level  of  civilization,  whom  the  constant  revolution  in  the 
process  of  production  has  cast  out  into  the  street,  as  a 
reserve  force,  and  who,  in  order  to  live,  must  perform  the 
lowest  kinds  of  work,  at  wages  that  even  make  the  intro- 
duction of  machinery  for  such  work  "unprofitable."  The 
crushing  of  stone,  for  instance,  is  notoriously  one  of  the 
most  disagreeable  and  most  poorly  paid  employments.  It 
would  be  a  simple  matter  to  have  this  crushing  of  stones 
done  by  machinery,  as  is  generally  being  done  in  the 
United  States.  But  in  Germany  there  is  such  an  abun- 
dance of  cheap  labor,  that  the  introduction  of  the  stone- 
crusher  would  not  "pay."*  Street-cleaning,  the  cleaning 
of  sewers,  collecting  ashes  and  garbage,  work  in  shafts 
and  caissons,  etc.,  might,  even  at  the  present  time,  with 
the  aid  of  proper  machinery,  be  performed  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  most  of  the  unpleasantness  connected  with  them 
for  the  laborers,  would  disappear.  But,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  a  workingman  who  cleans  sewers,  to  guard  human 
beings  against  the  dangers  of  germs  of  disease,  is  a  very 


*If  one  had  to  choose  between  Communism  with  all  its  chances  and 
the  present  social  order  with  all  its  suffering  and  injustice;  if  it  were 
a  necessary  result  of  private  property  that  the  products  of  labor 
should  be  divided  as  we  see  them  to-day,  almost  in  a  reverse  ratio 
to  the  work  performed — that  the  largest  shares  fall  to  those  who 
have  never  worked  at  all,  the  next  largest  to  those  whose  work  is 
almost  nominal,  and  so  on  along  the  line,  the  remuneration  becoming 
smaller  as  the  work  becomes  more  difficult  and  disagreeable,  until 
at  last  the  most  wearing  and  exhausting  labor  cannot  even  be  certain 
of  earning  the  most  needful  means  of  existence;  if,  we  say,  the  alter- 
native would  be :  this  or  Communism,  all  scruples  in  regard  to  Com- 
munism, both  great  and  small,  would  be  like  chaff  in  the  scales." — 
John  Stuart  Mill — Political  Economy.  Mills  has  honestly  tried  to 
"reform"  bourgeois  society  and  to  "make  it  listen  to  reason;"  of 
course,  in  vain ;  and  thus  like  every  rational  human  being  capable  of 
recognizing  the  true  nature  of  conditions,  he  finally  became  a 
Socialist.  He  did  not  dare  to  confess  to  this  during  his  life-time, 
but  caused  his  autobiography,  containing  his  socialistic  confession  of 
faith,  to  be  published  after  his  death.  His  position  was  similar  to 
Darwin's,  who  did  not  wish  to  be  regarded  as  an  atheist  during  his 
life-time.  Bourgeois  society  drives  thousands  to  such  hypocrisy.  The 
bourgeoisie  feigns  loyalty,  piety  and  submission  to  authority,  because 
their  rule  depends  upon  the  recognition  of  these  virtues  by  the 
masses,  but  inwardly  they  jeer  at  them. 


404        Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

useful  member  of  society,  while  a  professor  who  teaches 
falsified  history  in  the  interest  of  the  ruling  classes,  or  a 
theologian  who  seeks  to  mystify  the  minds  by  the 
teaching  of  supernatural  doctrines,  are  very  harmful  indi- 
viduals. 

A  great  many  of  our  present-day  scientists  and  schol- 
ars represent  a  guild  that  is  employed  and  paid  to  defend 
and  vindicate  the  dominance  gf  the  ruling  classes,  by 
means  of  the  authority  of  science,  to  let  this  dominance 
appear  just  and  necessary,  and  to  maintain  existing  preju- 
dices. In  truth,  this  guild,  to  a  great  extent,  poisons  the 
minds,  and  performs  work  hostile  to  the  advancement  of 
civilization,  in  the  interest  of  the  bourgeoisie  and  its 
clients.*  A  social  condition  that  will  henceforth  make 
the  existence  of  such  elements  of  society  impossible,  will 
perform  a  liberating  deed. 

On  the  other  hand,  true  science  is  often  connected  with 
very  disagreeable  and  revolting  work.  For  instance, 
when  a  physician  dissects  a  corpse  in  a  state  of  decompos- 
ition, or  operates  upon  a  purulent  part  of  the  body,  or 
when  a  chemist  examines  faeces.  .  These  tasks  are  often 
more  revolting  than  the  most  disagreeable  work  per- 
formed by  unskilled  laborers.  Yet  no  one  will  admit  that 
this  is  so.  The  difference  is  that  the  performance  of  the 
one  work  requires  profound  study,  while  the  other  work 
can  be  performed  by  anyone  without  previous  prepara- 
tion. This  accounts  for  the  great  difference  in  their  esti- 
mation. But  in  future  society,  where,  by  means  of  equal 
opportunities  of  education  for  all,  the  distinctions  of  edu- 
cated and  uneducated  will  disappear,  the  distinction  be- 
tween skilled  and  unskilled  labor  will  disappear  also. 
This  is  all  the  more  so  because  the  possibilities  of  tech- 
nical development  are  unlimited,  and  much  that  is  manual 
work  to-day  will  be  performed  by  machines  and  mechani- 
cal processes.  We  need  but  consider  the  present  develop- 
ment of  our  mechanical  arts;  for  instance,  engraving, 
wood-cutting,  etc.  As  the  most  disagreeable  tests  often 
are  the  most  useful  ones,  so  our  conceptions,  in  regard 


*"Learning  often  serves  ignorance  as  much  as  progress."     Buckle 
—"History  of  English  Civilization," 


The  Socialization  of  Society  405 

to  pleasant  and  unpleasant  work,  like  many  other  con- 
ceptions in  the  bourgeois  world,  are  superficial  and 
i'ounded  entirely  on  outward  appearances. 

8.— Abolition  of  Trade.    Transformation  of  Traffic. 

As  soon  as  the  new  society  will  have  placed  production 
on  the  basis  sketched  above,  it  will — as  we  have  already 
noted — cease  to  produce  "goods,"  and  will  only  produce, 
commodities  to  supply  the  social  demand.  As  a  result  of 
this,  trade  will  also  cease  to  exist,  as  trade  is  needful  and 
possible  only  in  an  organization  of  society  founded  on  the 
production  of  goods.  By  the  abolition  of  trade  a  great 
army  of  persons  of  both  sexes  will  be  mobilized  for  pro- 
ductive activity.  This  great  army  becomes  one  of  pro- 
ducers; it  brings  forth  commodities  and  enables  society 
to  increase  its  demands,  or  makes  possible  a  still  further 
reduction  of  the  hours  of  work.  To-day  these  persons 
live  more  or  less  like  parasites  on  the  products  of  the  toil 
of  others.  Still  they  often  work  very  hard  and  are  bur- 
dened with  cares,  without  earning  enough  to  supply  their 
wants.  In  the  new  society  commercial  men,  agents,  job- 
bers, etc.,  will  be  superfluous.  In  place  of  the  dozens, 
hundreds  and  thousands  of  stores  of  all  kinds  that  we 
find  in  every  municipality  to-day,  according  to  its  size, 
there  will  be  large  municipal  store-houses,  elegant  baz- 
zars,  entire  exhibitions,  that  will  require  a  compara- 
tively small  number  of  persons  for  their  administration. 
The  entire  bustle  of  trade  will  be  transformed  into  a  cen- 
tralized, purely  administrative  activity.  The  discharge  of 
its  duties  will  be  simple  and  will  become  still  more  sim- 
plified by  the  centralization  of  all  social  institutions. 
Traffic  will  experience  a  similar  transformation. 

Telegraph  and  telephone  lines,  railroads,  mail  service, 
river  and  ocean  vessels,  street-cars,  automobile  cars  and 
trucks,  air-ships  and  flying  machines,  and  whatever  all 
the  institutions  and  vehicles  serving  traffic  and  communi- 
cation may  be  called,  will  have  become  social  property. 
In  Germany  many  of  these  institutions,  like  the  mail,  the 
telegraph,  the  telephone  system,  and  most  railroads,  have 
already  been  made  state  institutions ;  their  transformation 
into  public  property  is  a  mere  matter  of  form.  Here  pri- 
vate interests  can  no  longer  be  injured.  If  the  state  con- 


406        Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 

tinues  to  operate  in  the  present  direction,  so  much  the 
better.  But  these  state-owned  institutions  are  not  so- 
cialistic institutions,  as  is  erroneously  assumed.  These 
institutions  are  exploited  by  the  state,  according  to  the 
same  capitalistic  principles  as  if  they  were  privately 
owned.  Neither  the  officials  nor  the  workingmen  are 
particularly  benefited  by  them.  The  state  does  not  treat 
them  differently  from  a  private  employer.  When,  for 
instance,  in  the  bureaus  of  the  national  navy  and  the  rail- 
road administration  orders  are  issued  not  to  employ 
workingmen  who  are  over  forty  years  of  age,  that  is  a 
measure  which  proves  the  class  character  of  the  state  as 
a  state  of  exploiters,  and  is  bound  to  rouse  the  indigna- 
tion of  the  workers,  buch  and  similar  measures  resorted 
to  by  the  state  in  its  capacity  of  employer,  are  much 
worse  than  when  resorted  to  by  private  employers.  The 
latter  is  always  a  small  employer  compared  to  the  state, 
and  the  employment  that  he  refuses  may  be  granted  by 
another.  But  the  state,  monopolizing  certain  branches 
of  employment,  may,  by  such  maxims,  with  one  blow 
drive  thousands  into  poverty.  These  are  not  socialistic 
but  capitalistic  actions,  and  Socialists  have  everv  reason 
to  protest  against  the  assumption  that  the  present  state- 
owned  institutions  are  socialistic  in  character  and  may  be 
regarded  as  a  realization  of  socialistic  aims. 

As  large,  centralized  institutions  will  replace  the  mil- 
lions of  private  dealers,  and  agents  of  all  kinds,  so  the  en- 
tire system  of  transportation  will  also  assume  a  different 
aspect.  The  millions  oi  small  shipments  that  are  sent  out 
daily  to  an  equal  number  of  owners,  and  entail  a  great 
waste  of  work,  time  and  material,  will  be  absorbed  by 
shipments  on  a  large  scale,  sent  out  to  the  municipal 
store-houses  and  the  large  centers  of  manufacture.  Here, 
too,  work  will  become  greatly  simplified.  As  it  is  much 
simpler  to  ship  raw  material  to  a  factory  employing  1000 
workingmen  than  to  ship  it  to  hundreds  of  scattered  small 
factories,  so  the  centers  of  production  and  distribution  for 
entire  muni  ipalities,  or  for  parts  of  same,  will  mean  a 
considerable  saving.  This  will  be  to  the  advantage  of  so- 
ciety, but  also  to  the  advantage  of  each  individual,  for 
public  interest  and  personal  interest  will  then  be  identi- 
cal. The  aspect  of  our  places  of  production,  of  our  means 


The  Socialization  of  Society  407 

of  transportation,  and  especially  also  of-  our  residences, 
will  thereby  become  entirely  changed.  They  will  obtain 
a  much  more  cheerful  aspect.  We  will  be  freed,  to  a 
great  extent,  from  the  nerve-racking  noise,  speed  and  con- 
fusion of  our  large  cities,  with  their  thousands  of  vehicles 
of  all  kinds.  The  building  of  streets,  street-cleaning,  the 
manner  of  living,  the  intercourse  of  people  with  one  an- 
other— all  will  experience  a  great  transformation.  It  will 
then  be  possible  to  carry  out  hygienic  measures  easily, 
which  to-day  can  be  carried  out  only  at  a  great  expense 
and  insufficiently,  and  often  only  iix.  the  residential  quar- 
ters of  the  wealthy  classes. 

Under  such  conditions  traffic  and  transportation  must 
attain  their  highest  development.  Perhaps  aerial  naviga- 
tion will  be  the  favorite  means  of  transportation  then. 
The  means  of  transportation  are  the  veins  that  conduct 
the  exchange  of  products — the  circulation —  through  the 
entire  body  social,  and  are  therefore  particularly  adapted 
to  the  dissemination  of  an  equal  standard  of  comfort  and 
culture.  To  provide  for  the  extension  and  ramification  of 
the  most  perfect  means  of  transportation  to  the  remotest 
portions  of  the  provinces  will  become  a  necessity  to  the 
public  welfare.  Here  the  new  society  will  set  tasks  for 
itself  that  by  far  exceed  those  of  present-day  society. 
This  highly  perfected  system  of  communication  will  also 
decentralize  the  masses  of  humanity  that  at  present  con- 
gest our  large  cities  and  centers  of  industry,  and  will 
scatter  them  broadcast  over  the  land.  This  will  not  only 
be  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  public  health,  it  will  also 
have  a  decisive  influence  on  the  material  and  intellectual 
progress  of  civilization. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 
Socialism  and  Agriculture. 

i. — Abolition  of  the  Private  Ownership  of  Land. 

Land,  being  the  prime  raw  material  for  all  human  labor 
and  the  basis  of  human  existence,  must  be  made  the  prop- 
erty of  society,  together  with  the  means  of  production 


408  Socialism  and  Agriculture 

and  distribution.  At  an  advanced  stage  of  development 
society  will  again  take  possession  of  what  it  owned  in 
primeval  days.  At  a  certain  stage  of  development  all  hu- 
man races  had  common  ownership  of  land.  Common 
property  is  the  foundation  of  every  primitive  social  or- 
ganization ;  it  is  essential  to  its  existence.  Only  by  the 
rise  and  development  of  private  property  and  the  forms  of 
rulership  connected  with  it,  has  common  property  been 
abolished  and  usurped  as  private  property,  as  we  have 
seen,  not  without  severe  struggles.  The  robbery  of  the 
land  and  its  transformation  into  private  property  formed 
the  first  cause  of  oppression.  This  oppression  has  passed 
through  all  stages,  from  slavery  to  "free"  wage-labor  of 
the  twentieth  century,  until,  after  a  development  of  thou- 
sands of  years,  the  oppressed  again  convert  the  soil  into 
common  property. 

The  great  importance  of  the  soil  to  human  existence 
was  the  reason  why  the  ownership  of  the  soil  constituted 
the  chief  cause  of  conflict  in  all  social  struggles  of  the 
world — in  India,  China,  Egypt,  Greece,  Rome,  the  Chris- 
tian middle  ages,  the  realms  of  the  Aztecs  and  Incas,  and 
in  the  social  struggles  of  modern  times.  Even  at  the 
present  day  men  like  Adolf  Samter,  Adolf  Wagner,  Dr. 
SchaerHe,  Henry  George,  and  others,  who  do  not  believe 
in  other  forms  of  common  property,  favor  the  common 
ownership  of  land.* 


*During  the  centuries  when  common  ownership  of  land  still  pre- 
dominated, but  the  robbery  of  land  assumed  ever  greater  portions, 
fathers  of  the  church,  popes  and  bishops  have  also  preached  com- 
munistic doctrines.  Of  course,  the  syllabus  and  the  encyclical  letters 
of  the  nineteenth  century  no  longer  contain  references  of  this  sort, 
and  the  popes  too  have  become  subservient  to  bourgeois  society  and 
rise  to  defend  it  against  the  Socialists.  Bishop  Clemens  I  (died  102 
A.  D.)  said:  "The  use  of  all  worldly  things  should  be  common  to 
all.  It  is  wrong  to  say:  This  is  mine,  this  belongs  to  me,  and  that 
to  someone  else.  It  is  this  which  has  caused  dissention  among  men." 
Bishop  Ambrosius  of  Milan,  who  lived  around  374,  exclaimed: 
"Nature  gives  all  blessings  to  all  men  in  common ;  for  God  has  cre- 
ated all  things  for  the  common  enjoyment  of  all,  that  the  earth 
should  be  common  property..  Nature  accordingly  has  created  the 
right  of  common  ownership,  and  only  unfair  usurpation  creates  the 
right  of  private  property."  In  his  Book  of  Homilies  directed  against 


The  Socialization  of  Society  409 

The  welfare  of  a  population  depends  primarily  upon 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  To  develop  this  cultivation 
to  the  highest  degree  is  eminently  to  the  interest  of  all. 
That  this  highest  degree  of  development  cannot  be  at- 
tained under  the  rule  of  private  property,  has  been 
shown.  To  obtain  the  greatest  possible  advantage  from 
the  soil,  not  its  cultivation  alone  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. Other  factors  must  be  considered  to  which 
neither  the  largest  private  owner  nor  the  most  powerful 
association  is  equal,  factors  that  may  exceed  even  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  state  and  require  international  consid- 
eration. 

2. — The  Amelioration  of  Land. 

Society  must  consider  the  land  in  its  totality,  its  topo- 
graphical condition,  its  mountains,  plains,  forests,  lakes, 


the  wickedness  and  depravity  of  the  people  of  Constantinople,  St. 
John  Chrysostomus  (died  408)  wrote:  "Let  no  one  call  anything  his 
own..  From  God  have  we  received  everything  for  common  enjoy- 
ment, and  mine  and  thine  are  words  of  falsehood!" .  St.  Augustin 
(died  430)  said:  "Because  we  have  private  property,  we  also  have 
law  suits,  hostility,  dissention,  wars,  rebellion,  sin,  injustice,  murder. 
Whence  come  all  these  scourges?  Only  from  property.  So,  my 
brethren,  let  us  refrain  from  owning  things,  or  let  us,  at  least,  refrain 
from  loving  what  we  own."  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  (about  600) 
exclaimed :  "Let  them  know  that  the  earth  whence  they  come  and  of 
which  they  are  made  is  common  to  all  men,  and  that  the  fruits  which 
the  earth  brings  forth  should  therefore  belong  to  all  without  distinc- 
tion.".  Bossuet,  the  famous  bishop  of  Meaux  (died  1704),  says  in  his 
"Politics  of  the  Holy  Scripture :"  "Without  the  governments  the 
earth  and  its  products  would  belong  to  all  men  in  common,  just  as 
air  and  light.  According  to  the  prime  right  of  nature,  no  one  may 
lay  claim  to  anything.  All  things  belong  to  all.  From  bourgeois 
government  property  derives  its  origin."  The  last  sentence  might  be 
more  clearly  expressed  in  the  following  manner:  because  common 
property  became  private  property,  we  have  obtained  bourgeois  gov- 
ernments that  must  protect  it.  One  of  the  moderns,  Zachariae,  says 
in  his  "Forty  Books  on  the  States:"  All  sufferings  of  civilized  na- 
tions may  be  traced  to  the  private  ownership  of  land." .  All  the  men 
quoted  above  have  more  or  less  correctly  recognized  the  nature  of 
private  property.  As  St.  Augustin  says:  Since  its  existence  it  has 
brought  into  the  world  law  suits,  hostility,  dissention,  war,  rebellion, 
sin,  injustice,  murder, — evils  tht  will  disappear  again  by  its  abolition. 


410  Socialism  and  Agriculture 

rivers,  ponds,  heathers,  swamps  and  moors.  Besides  the 
geographical  location,  which  is  unalterable,  this  topo- 
graphical condition  exerts  a  certain  influence  upon  the 
climate  and  the  nature  of  the  soil.  This  is  a  vast  field 
of  activity,  where  much  experience  is  still  to  be  gained 
and  much  experimentation  still  to  be  performed.  Until 
now  the  state  has  accomplished  but  little  along  these 
lines.  Only  moderate  means  have  been  applied  to  such 
tasks  of  civilization,  and  even  if  the  state  desired  to 
adopt  effective  measures,  the  large  landed  proprietors, 
who  have  a  decisive  voice  in  legislation,  would  prevent 
the  carrying  out  of  such  measures.  Without  interference 
with  private  property  nothing  effectual  could  be  done. 
But  since  the  state  is  founded  en  the  "sanctity"  of  private 
property,  and  since  the  large  owners  of  private  property 
are  its  chief  supporters,  it  is  prevented  from  proceeding 
in  the  manner  that  has  been  designated.  It  would  be 
necessary  to  undertake  the  amelioration  of  land  on  a 
grand  scale,  to  plant  forests  here  and  cut  down  forests 
there,  to  irrigate  and  to  drain;  to  mix  different  kinds  of 
soil,  to  break  ground  and  to  plant,  in  order  to  attain  the 
highest  degree  of  fertility. 

A  highly  important  factor  in  the  amelioration  of  the 
land  would  be  an  extensive  system  of  rivers  and  canals, 
to  be  conducted  according  to  scientific  principles.  The 
question  of  cheap  transportation  by  water,  so  important 
to  present-day  society,  would  be  of  minor  importance  to 
the  new  society.  Nevertheless  transportation  by  water 
will  be  regarded  as  a  very  convenient  means  of  trans- 
portation, requiring  the  least  expenditure  in  strength  and 
material.  But  of  the  greatest  importance  an  extensive 
system  of  rivers  and  canals  will  be  for  purposes  of  irriga- 
tion and  drainage,  for  the  transportation  of  manure  and 
ether  materials  for  the  amelioration  of  the  land^  and  for 
the  distribution  of  the  crops. 

It  has  been  determined  by  experience  that  countries 
where  water  is  scarce,  suffer  much  more  from  cold  win- 
ters and  hot  summers  than  countries  having  an  abundant 
water  supply.  For  this  reason  maritime  countries  rarely 
suffer  from  extremes  of  temperature.  Such  extremes  of 
temperature  are  neither  advantageous  nor  agreeable  to 
plants  or  human  beings.  An  extensive  system  of  canals, 


The  Socialization  of  Society  411 

combined  with  measures  for  the  preservation  of  forests, 
would  have  a  beneficial  influence.  Such  systems  of 
canals  and  large  basins,  to  collect  and  preserve  mas*ea  of 
water,  would  prove  especially  beneficial,  when  the  melt- 
ing ice  and  snow,  in  spring,  or  heavy  rain-falls  c«iuse 
rivers  and  streams  to  rise  and  to  overflow  their  banks. 
The  construction  of  similar  canals  and  basins  would  be 
required  for  the  mountain  torrents.  Floods,  with  their 
ravaging  effects,  would  then  become  impossible.  Exten- 
sive surfaces  of  water  and  the  increased  evaporation 
would  probably  also  cause  rain  to  fall  more  regularly. 
These  improvements  would  also  make  it  possible  to  es- 
tablish pumps  and  lifting  apparatus  for  an  extensive  irri- 
gation of  the  land  whenever  necessary. 

Wide  stretches  of  arid  land  might  be  made  fertile  by 
artificial  irrigation.  Where  at  present  the  grazing  sheep 
barely  find  sufficient  nourishment  and  where,  at  best, 
only  emaciated  looking  trees  stretch  their  lean 
branches  skyward,  an  abundance  of  crops  might  be  raised 
and  a  dense  population  might  obtain  nourishment  and 
enjoyment.  It  is,  for  instance,  only  a  question  of  the 
amount  of  labor  employed,  to  transform  the  stretches  of 
sandy  soil  of  the  March,  humorously  called  "the  sand- 
box of  the  German  Empire,"  into  an  Eden  of  fertility. 
This  was  pointed  out  by  one  of  the  lecturers  at  the  Ger- 
man agricultural  exhibition,  in  Berlin,  during  the  spring 
of  1894.*  But  the  landowners  of  the  March  do  not  have 
sufficient  means  to  undertake  the  building  of  canals,  irri- 
gation, amelioration  of  the  land,  etc.,  and  so,  just  beyond 
the  walls  of  the  national  capital  wide  stretches  of  land 
remain  in  a  condition  that  will  seem  incredible  to  com- 
ing generations.  On  the  other  hand,  by  means  of  canaliz- 
ation, wide  stretches  of  swamps,  moor-land  and  marshes 
might  be  drained  and  won  for  cultivation ;  thus,  in  north- 
ern and  southern  parts  of  Germany,  the  canals  might  fur- 
ther be  used  for  the  breeding  of  fish,  and  small  communi- 


*An  official  report  on  the  world's-fair  in  Chicago  contained  the 
following:  "The  utilization  of  water  to  raise  fruit  and  vegetables 
becomes  increasingly  desirable.  Water  companies  established  for  this 
purpose  might  transform  deserts  into  edens." 


412  Socialism  and  Agriculture 

ties  that  are  not  located  near  rivers  might  use  them  to 
erect  bathing  establishments. * 

A  few  examples  will  suffice  to  show  the  influence  of 
irrigation.  In  the  vicinity  of  Weissenfels,  7^  hectares 
of  irrigated  meadows  yielded  480  cwt.  of  hay,  while  5 
hectares,  located  beside  these,  that  were  not  irrigated, 
yielded  only  32  cwt.  The  former  produced  more  than 
ten  times  as  much  as  the  latter.  Near  Riesa,  in  Saxony, 
65  acres  of  irrigated  meadows  increased  the  net  proceeds 
from  5,850  to  11,100  marks.  By  an  investment  of  124.000 
marks  for  irrigation  of  the  arid  lands  at  the  right  bank 
of  the  Lippe,  an  annual  gain  of  approximately  400,000 
marks  was  obtained.  The  amelioration  of  the  land  under- 
taken in  Lower  Austria  cost  about  one  million  crowns 
and  increased  the  value  of  the  produce  by  about  six  mil- 
lion crowns.  The  expensive  improvements  paid.  Other 
parts  of  Germany,  besides  the  March  have  an  exceed- 
ingly sandy  soil,  and  here  the  harvests  are  only  fairly 
satisfactory,  after  a  rainy  summer.  If  these  vicinities 
could  be  furrowed  with  canals,  properly  irrigated  and 
ameliorated,  they  would  shortly  bring  forth  five  and  ten 
times  their  present  amount.  Examples  are  at  hand  in 
Spain,  showing  that  well-irrigated  soil  brought  forth  37 
times  as  much  as  soil  that  had  not  been  irrigated.  So 
water  is  all  that  is  needed  to  bring  forth  fresh  masses  of 
nourishment  from  the  soil. 

Hardly  a  year  passes  in  which  not  one  or  the  other  of 
the  German  states  and  provinces  is  ravaged  by  floods. 
Large  tracts  of  the  most  fertile  land  are  carried  away  by 
the  force  of  the  water;  others  are  littered  with  stones, 
sand  and  rubbish,  and  are  made  unfertile  for  years  to 
come.  Entire  orchards  that  have  required  decades  to  be 
grown  are  uprooted.  Houses,  bridges,  streets  and  dams 
are  washed  away,  railroads  are  ruined  and  human  lives 


*"In  a  highly  cultivated  part  of  the  Austrian  monarchy — in  Bo- 
hemia— 6^6,000  hectares  of  farm  land  are  in  want  of  drainage.  174,- 
ooo  hectares  of  meadows  are  either  too  moist  or  too  dry.  Of  course, 
matters  are  much  worse  in  those  vicinities  that  are  less  developed 
agriculturally,  as  especially  in  Galicia."  Dr.  Eugene  v.  Philippovitch 
— Political  Economy. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  413 

are  sacrificed,  flocks  perish  and  crops  are  destroyed 
Wide  stretches  of  land  that  are  exposed  to  frequent  rav- 
ages from  floods  are  not  cultivated  at  all,  or  only  slightly, 
since  their  owners  do  not  wish  to  suffer  constant  loss. 
Devastation  of  the  forests,  especially  on  the  mountains, 
and  particularly  by  private  owners,  increases  the  danger 
from  floods.  The  mad  devastation  of  the  forests,  prompt- 
ed by  a  desire  for  profit,  has  led  to  a  diminution  of  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  in  the  German  provinces  of  Russia 
and  Pommerania,  in  Corinthia  and  Styria,  as  also  in  Italy, 
France,  Spain,  Russia,  and  other  countries. 

Frequent  floods  are  the  result  of  the  devastation  of 
forests  on  the  mountains.  The  inundations  of  the  Rhine, 
the  Oder,  and  the  Vistula  are  ascribed  mainly  to  the 
devastation  of  forests  in  Switzerland,  Galicia,  and  Poland. 
The  same  causes  lead  to  the  frequent  inundations  in 
Italy,  especially  of  the  River  Po.  As  a  result  of  the 
same  causes,  Madeira,  large  portions  of  Spain,  the  most 
fertile  provinces  of  Russia,  and  stretches  of  land  in  Asia 
Minor,  which  were  at  one  time  fertile  and  blooming, 
have  lost  much  of  their  fertility.5" 

At  last  even  bourgeois  society  has  begun  to  recognize 
that,  in  this  respect,  it  will  no  longer  do  to  maintain  the 
policy  of  "laissez  faire,"  and  that,  by  sensible  measures, 
applied  on  a  large  scale,  the  destructive  forces  can  be 
transformed  into  constructive  ones.  So  the  construction 
of  large  dams  was  undertaken  to  collect  immense  quanti- 
ties of  water  and  to  utilize  the  water-power  to  supply 
electric  power  to  industry  and  agriculture.  The  Bava- 
rian state  especially  has  undertaken  to  dam  the  mountain 
streams  on  a  grand  scale  to  obtain  power  for  the  running 
of  electric  railways  and  other  industrial  undertakings. 
Agrarian  old  Bavaria  is  thereby  rapidly  becoming  a  mod- 
ern industrial  state. 


*According  to  Schwoppach,  the  forest  is  of  immeasurable  value 
by  preventing  of  washing  away  the  soil  on  the  mountains  and  pre- 
venting the  soil  from  becoming  sandy  in  the  plains.  The  devastation 
of  forests  in  Russia  is  a  chief  cause  why  the  cultivated  land  is  be- 
coming increasingly  sandy. 


414  Socialism  and  Agriculture 

3. — Changed  Methods  of  Farming. 

It  is  self-understood  that  these  great  tasks  cannot  be 
accomplished  at  once;  but  the  new  society  will  devote 
all  its  strength  to  these  and  similar  undertakings,  since 
it  will  be  the  avowed  purpose  of  this  new  society  to  per- 
form tasks  in  the  interest  of  civilization  and  to  permit 
nothing  to  interfere  with  their  performance.  In  the 
course  of  time  it  will  accomplish  works  the  very  thought 
of  which  would  make  present-day  society  dizzy. 

Measures  and  institutions  like  the  ones  described 
above  will  make  agriculture  much  more  favorable.  Still 
other  points  are  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  the 
improved  methods  of  farming.  At  present  many  square 
miles  of  land  are  planned  with  potatoes  to  be  used  mainly 
for  the  distilling  of  whiskey,  which  is  consumed  almost 
exclusively  by  the  poor  and  needy  portion  of  the  popula- 
tion. Whiskey  is  the  only  stimulant  they  can  obtain,  the 
only  banisher  of  care.  But  among  the  truly  civilized 
people  of  the  new  society  the  consumption  of  whiskey 
will  disappear;  the  soil  and  the  labor  power  will  be  em- 
ployed to  raise  wholesome  food.  We  have  already  point- 
ed to  the  cultivation  of  sugar-beets  and  the  manufacture 
of  sugar  for  export.  In  Germany  more  than  400,000  hec- 
tares of  land,  best  suited  to  the  raising  of  wheat,  are  de- 
voted to  the  cultivation  of  sugar-beets,  to  supply 
England,  Switzerland,  the  United  States,  etc.,  with  sugar. 
Our  standing  army,  the  scattered  methods  of  production 
and  distribution,  the  scattered  methods  of  farming,  etc., 
make  it  necessary  to  breed  millions  of  horses,  and  large 
areas  of  land  are  required  to  pasture  them.  The  thor- 
oughly transformed  social  and  political  conditions  will 
enable  the  new  society  to  utilize  most  of  this  land  for 
agricultural  purposes.  Recently  areas  of  many  square 
kilometers  have  been  withdrawn  from  agriculture,  entire 
villages  have  been  wiped  out,  because  the  new  long- 
range  firearms  and  the  new  methods  of  combat  necessi- 
tate drilling-grounds  on  which  whole  troops  may  manoeu- 
vre. Such  use  will  never  be  made  of  the  land  in  the 
future. 

The  great  realm  of  agriculture,  forestry  and  irrigation 
has  already  been  made  the  subject  of  discussion,  and  a 


The  Socialization  of  Society  415 

considerable  literature  exists  on  the  subject.  No  par- 
ticular field  has  remained  unconsidered.  Forestry,  irri- 
gation and  drainage,  the  raising  of  grain,  the  cultivation 
of  vegetables,  fruit,  berries,  flowers  and  ornamental 
plants,  the  raising  of  fodder  for  domestic  animals,  cattle- 
breeding,  raising  of  poultry,  fish  and  bees,  the  prepara- 
tion of  dung  and  manure,  the  use  of  waste  materials  in 
farming  and  in  industry,  chemical  examinations  of  the 
soil,  and  its  preparation  for  one  or  another  kind  of  crop, 
the  nature  of  seeds,  rotation  of  crops,  farm  implements 
and  machinery,  proper  construction  of  farm-buildings, 
conditions  of  climate,  etc. — all  these  things  have  been 
made  subjects  of  scientific  discussion  and  investigation. 
Almost  daily  new  discoveries  and  experiences  lead  to  im- 
provements along  one  line  or  another.  Since  the  re- 
searches of  Thaer  and  J.  v.  Liebig  agriculture  has  be- 
come a  science.  Indeed  it  has  become  one  of  the  first  and 
ioremost  sciences  and  has  attained  a  degree  of  impor- 
tance that  few  realms  of  productive  activity  can  equal. 
But  if  we  compare  this  tremendous  progress  along  all 
lines  with  the  true  status  of  agriculture,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that,  so  far,  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  private 
owners  have  been  able  to  make  use  of  this  progress,  and 
all  only  pursue  their  private  interest,  regardless  of  the 
public  welfare.  The  great  majority  of  our  farmers,  we 
may  say  about  99  per  cent,  of  them,  are  quite  unable  to 
make  use  of  the  progress  and  the  advantages  offered  by 
science  and  by  technical  improvements,  because  they 
lack  the  necessary  means,  or  knowledge,  or  both.  Here 
the  new  society  will  find  a  field  that  has  been  well  pre- 
pared, both  theoretically  and  practically,  and  that  it  will 
only  need  to  organize  to  attain  the  grandest  results. 

4. — Agriculture  on  a  Large  and  Small  Scale.     Electric 
Appliances. 

While  even  among  Socialists  some  persons  still  hold 
the  opinion,  that  small  farmers  are  able  to  compete  with 
the  large  agricultural  enterprises  by  means  of  their  own 
thrift  and  that  of  their  families,  experts  have  come  to 
hold  a  different  opinion.  By  over-exertion  the  peasant 
may  achieve  his  utmost,  but  from  the  standpoint  of  a 


4i 6  Socialism  and  Agriculture 

civilized  human  being  his  position  is  a  deplorable  one. 
No  matter  how  much  he  may  achieve,  the  modern  tech- 
nical development  and  the  science  of  agriculture  can 
achieve  more.  But,  above  all,  only  by  the  appliance  of 
science  and  technique  does  the  peasant  attain  the  full  de- 
velopment of  a  civilized  human  being,  while  to-day  he  is 
the  slave  of  his  property  and  the  helot  of  his  creditor. 

The  advantages  of  farming  on  a  large  scale  are  im- 
mense. To  begin  with,  the  area  that  can  be  utilized  is 
considerably  enlarged,  because  the  numerous  paths  and 
roads  and  ridges  necessitated  by  the  disjointed  proper- 
ties, disappear.  Fifty  persons,  working  on  a  large  farm 
— regardless  of  the  more  rational  implements  used  by 
them — can  accomplish  much  more  than  50  persons  work- 
ing on  scattered  farms.  Only  farming  on  a  large  scale 
makes  it  possible  to  combine  and  direct  the  forces  so  as 
to  obtain  the  best  results.  To  this  must  be  added  the 
immense  advantage  derived  from  the  application  of  all 
kinds  of  machinery,  the  use  of  the  produce  for  industrial 
purposes,  the  more  rational  methods  of  cattle  and  poultry 
breeding,  etc.  Electric  appliances  especially  furnish  ad- 
vantages to  agriculture  that  overshadow  every  other 
method  of  cultivation.  P.  Mack*  has  ascertained  that 
the  introduction  of  machinery  led  to  a  saving  of  over 
5000  days'  labor  by  horses,  and  that  a  single  investment 
of  40,000  marks  capital  led  to  a  cheapening  of  the  product 
of  over  12,000  marks'  or  48  marks  per  hectare.  This 
computation  did  not  even  take  into  consideration  the  in- 
crease in  produce  from  the  introduction  of  deep  plough- 
ing, or  the  more  exact  cultivation  by  machinery.* 

Deep  ploughing  led  to  an  increase  of  from  20  to  40  per 
cent,  in  the  cultivation  of  grain,  and  up  to  50  per  cent,  in 
the  cultivation  of  potatoes,  turnips,  and  the  like.  Taking 


*P.  Mack  Althof-Ragnit  Cavalry-Captain  and  Owner  of  Manorial 
Estate — The  Development  of  Agriculture  by  Cheapening  of  the  Cost 
of  Production.  An  Investigation  of  the  Service  rendered  Agriculture 
by  Machines  and  Electricity.  Koenigsberg,  1900. 

*The  packing  into  subterranean  pits  (Campbell)  has  become  a  very 
significant  factor  in  recent  years.  In  some  regions  of  North  America 
where  rain  is  scarce,  marvelous  results  have  been  obtained  by  this 
method. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  417 

an  average  of  only  20  per  cent.,  Mack  showed  that,  on  the 
farm  under  consideration,  this  meant  a  gain  of  55.45 
marks  per  hectare ;  together  with  the  saving  referred  to 
above,  this  made  a  gain  of  103.45  marks  per  hectare. 
Mack  pointed  out  that  it  was  necessary  to  establish  a 
sufficient  number  of  power  plants,  whereby  not  only  all 
the  machinery  employed  could  be  set  in  motion,  but  heat 
and  light  could  also  be  supplied.  By  means  of  the  elec- 
tric plants,  the  dwellings,  streets,  stables,  barns,  store- 
houses and  factories  can  be  lighted,  and  if  it  should  be- 
come necessary,  crops  can  be  reaped  at  night.  Mack 
calculated  that,  by  the  general  introduction  of  electricity, 
two-thirds  of  the  animals  employed  for  drawing  and 
carrying  loads  (1,741,300)  heads)  might  be  dispensed 
with,  which  would  imply  an  annual  net  profit  of  1,002,- 
989,000  marks. 

The  application  of  electricity  makes  agriculture  more 
and  more  a  purely  technical,  industrial  process.  The 
following  compilation  shows  the  manifold  applicability 
of  electricity  in  agriculture  :*  The  following  can  be  run 
by  electric  motors:  i.  Machines  that  heighten  the  gross 
proceeds:  A.  for  tilling:  seed-assorter  and  electric 
ploughs.  B.  for  the  harvest :  mowing-machines  with 
binders  ;  machines  for  reaping  potatoes  ;  irrigation-works. 
2.  Machines  for  reducing  the  cost  of  production:  A.  lift- 
ing machines,  unloading  machines  in  barns,  grain  ele- 
vators, pumps  for  liquid  manure.  B.  means  of  transpor- 
tation :  groves,  straps  and  bellows,  field-railways,  spin- 
dles and  cranes.  C.  for  utilization :  straw-presses,  corn- 
mills,  chaff-cutters.  3.  Machines  of  agricultural  indus- 
try: A.  distillery  machines  and  machines  for  the  manu- 
facture of  starch ;  water-pumps  for  various  purposes. 
B.  dairy  implements:  refrigerators,  centrifuges,  churn- 
ers,  kneaders,  presses,  etc.  C.  saw-mills,  circular-saws 
and  saw-frames.  D.  drills,  turning-lathes,  machines  for 
wheel-making.  4.  Food-chopping  machines,  for  cattle- 
breeding:  chaff-cutters,  turnip-choppers,  meal,  potato 
and  oat-ginders,  etc. ;  squeezers,  water-pumps.  Investi- 
gations have  shown  that  about  15  per  cent,  of  all  farm- 


*Kurt  Krohne — The  Expanded  Application  of  Electricity  in  Agri- 
culture.   Journal  of  Electrotechnics,  1908. 


4z8 


Socialism  and  Agriculture 


labor  can  be  performed  in  this  economical  way,  by  the 
aid  of  electric  motors. 

The  amount  of  manual  labor  power  required  for  the 
threshing  and  preparation  of  1000  kilograms  of  grain  was 
ascertained :  Number  of 

hours  required. 

1.  When  all  the  work  was  done  by  hand 104 

2.  When  small  thrashing-machines  and  riddling  ma- 

chines were  employed 41.4 

3.  When  an  electric  thrashing-machine  of  20  horse 

power  was  employed 26.4 

4.  When    a   giant    electric   thrashing-machine    with 

winnowing  and  riddling  machine,  elevators,  etc. 
was   employed 10.5 

There  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  general  introduction  of 
electric  ploughs.  Like  the  electric  railway,  the  electric 
plough  has  already  attained  a  high  degree  of  develop- 
ment. The  heavy  and  expensive  steam-plough  can  be 
rationally  employed  only  on  large  areas  and  for  deep 
ploughing.  It  is  especially  serviceable  for  heightening 
the  crops  of  potatoes,  etc.  But  the  electric  plough  can 
be  used  equally  well  for  deep  and  shallow  ploughing. 
It  makes  it  possible  to  cultivate  the  soil  on  steep  inclines, 
where  it  is  difficult  to  plough  with  horses,  or  oxen  even. 
It  is  a  great  labor-saving  device,  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
following  comparison  of  expenses  for  ploughing,  when 
horses,  oxen,  a  steam-plough  and  an  electric  plough  were 
used : 


4 

6 

8 

» 

.4 

Horses 

1    5O 

voo 

4.  2O 

7.7O 

I"!  .  7Q 

Oxen  

3.65 

4.65 

5.80 

7.QO 

IO.2O 

Steam-plough   rented   from          .... 

6.00 

6.  70 

7.60 

Q.IS 

IO.7O 

«          <c            «i        to 

7  ^o 

8.40 

q.-jc 

II  .00 

12.  SS 

"          "       owned,  from  

4.  So' 

5.00 

5.85 

7-^o 

8.85 

11          "             "        to  

6.00 

6.70 

'7.60' 

Q.IS 

IO.7O 

Electric-plough  horse  power  40 

2.  7O 

7  .  CC 

4.60 

6.25 

7.QC 

"            "            "          "      60  

2.65 

3.40 

fd.^o 

5.  70 

7.10 

"            "            "          "      80  

2.  SO 

7.1«5 

.       » 

VQO 

5.2O 

6.50 

Cost  per  acre  for  ploughing  number 
of  inches  of  medium  depth 


The  Socialization  of  Society  419 

The  simple  supply  and  distribution  of  electric  energy, 
the  ease  and  simplicity  with  which  electric  machines 
can  be  run  and  kept  in  order,  make  their  advantages  to 
agriculture  paramount,  especially  as  a  thin  wire  suffices 
to  supply  the  power  to  extensive  areas.  As  the  employ- 
ment of  electric  machines  would  necessitate  a  network 
of  electric  wires  across  the  country,  electric  motor-power 
in  agriculture  could  easily  be  combined  with  electro- 
cultivation,  the  direct  influence  of  electricity  on  the 
growth  of  plants. 

During  recent  years  plant  physiologists,  as  also  prac- 
tical agriculturists,  were  eagerly  engaged  in  studying  the 
influence  of  electricity  on  the  growth  and  fructification 
of  plants,  especially  the  various  kinds  of  grain.  The  task 
was  accomplished  by  the  late  Professor  R.  S.  Lemstroem 
(died  1906).  He  spread  a  net  of  wire  across  a  large 
area  of  cultivated  ground  which,  by  means  of  a  battery, 
he  charged  with  positive  electricity,  while  the  negative 
pole  remained  on  the  ground,  and  subjected  a  field,  or 
part  of  one,  to  an  electric  current  during  its  entire  pe- 
riod of  vegetation,  while  an  adjacent  field,  which  was 
under  observation  also,  remained  uninfluenced.  The  ex- 
periments were  tried  upon  various  areas  of  different  size, 
and,  wherever  carried  out  properly,  they  all  showed  the 
same  favorable  results.  Firstly,  the  crop  increased  from 
30  to  over  100  per  cent. ;  secondly,  it  ripened  in  a  shorter 
time,  and  thirdly,  the  quality  was  considerably  improved. 
There  were  still  a  few  practical  short-comings  connected 
with  this  method,  which  Newman,  an  'English  agricul- 
turist, succeded  in  removing.  He  succeeded  in  interest- 
ing a  famous  English  physicist,  Oliver  Lodge,  in  Lem- 
stroem's  method.  According  to  recent  reports  from 
Lodge  these  experiments  have  been  successively  tried 
from  1906  to  1908;  the  area  under  observation  has  been 
extended  to  ten  hectares,  and  it  was  satisfactorily  proven 
that  the  charged  wire  net  may  be  spread  as  high  as  five 
meters  above  the  ground,  without  lessening  the  favora- 
ble influence  of  the  electric  current  on  the  harvest.  This 
altitude  makes  it  possible  to  drive  loaded  wagons  be- 
neath the  wire  net  and  to  perform  all  agricultural  tasks 
without  interference,  while  Lemstroem's  net  was  not  to 
be  more  than  40  centimeters  above  the  plants  to  be  in- 


420  Socialism  and  Agriculture 

fluenced  by  the  electric  current.*  Several  millers  insti- 
tuted comparative  baking  experiments,  and  the  electrified 
wheat  was  found  to  make  better  flour  that  that  which 
had  not  been  electrified.  So  the  new  method  is  ripe  for 
being  successfully  introduced  into  agriculture  and  horti- 
culture. 

Fowler's  steam-plough,  with  two  compound  locomo- 
tives, requires  an  area  of  5000  hectares  for  its  satisfactory 
application,  which  is  larger  than  the  cultivated  area  of 
most  peasant  communities.  It  has  been  calculated  that, 
if  the  soil  under  cultivation  in  1895  had  been  culti- 
vated with  the  application  of  all  available  machinery  and 
all  other  modern  advantages,  a  saving  of  1600  million 
marks  would  have  been  realized.  According  to  Ruhland** 
the  successful  combating  of  the  diseases  of  grain  alone 
would  make  the  import  of  grain  into  Germany  super- 
fluous. In  his  book  on  "Our  Meadows  and  Produce  of 
the  Fields,"  Dr.  Sonnenberg  informs  us,  that  Bavarian 
agriculture  suffers  a  loss  of  30  per  cent,  annually,  owing 
to  the  spread  of  weeds  in  the  fields.  On  two  areas  of 
4  square  meters  each,  one  of  which  was  full  of  weeds, 
while  the  other  had  been  kept  clear  of  weeds,  Nowatzki 
attained  the  following  results : 

Stalks.     Grains.         Crop  of  straw. 

On  the  area  with  wtedi...     .216  180  230  grammes 

On  the  area  free  from  weeds.  .423  528  1077  grammes 

Dr.  v.  Ruemker,  Professor  at  the  Agricultural  Insti- 
tute of  the  University  of  Breslau,  declares  that  a  careful 
economy  of  the  nourishment  of  the  soil  is  almost  entirely 
wanting  in  Germany.  The  cultivation  of  the  soil  and  the 
sowing  are  done  in  such  a  thoughtless  manner,  according 
to  old,  acquired  habits,  and  by  means  of  such  insufficient 
and  imperfect  tools,  that  the  returns  of  all  the  labor  must 
remain  poor  and  unsatisfactory.  He  claims  that  the  Ger- 


*M.  Breslatier — The  Influence  of  Electricity  on  the  growth  of 
plants.  Journal  of  Electrotechnics,  1908.  A  small  plant  for  purposes 
of  demonstration  is  being  erected  near  Berlin  under  the  direction  of 
Breslauer. 

**Dr.  G.  Ruhland — Fundamental  Principles  of  Actual  Agrarian 
Politics.  Tuebingen,  1893. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  421 

man  farmers  do  not  even  perform  the  easy  task  of  ration- 
ally assorting  their  seed.  Professor  v.  Ruemker  showed 
by  the  following  table  how  the  harvest  can  be  increased 
per  hectare  by  assorting  the  seed: 

Not  assorted  Assorted  Number  of 

Wheat  furnished                   kilograms  kilograms  kilogr's  more 

per  hectare  per  hectare  from  ass'd  seeds 

Entire  crop 8,000  10,800  +2,800 

Grain    1.668  2,885  +1,217 

Straw  and  chaff 6,332  7,915  +1,583 

Weight  in  hectoliters  of  crop   77.2  78.7  +     1.5 

So,  according  to  this  table,  1200  kilograms  more  of 
corn  might  be  obtained  per  hectare  by  properly  assort- 
ing the  seed,  which,  valued  at  15  marks  per  cwt,  repre- 
sents a  gain  of  180  marks.  Estimating  the  cost  of  as- 
sorting 4.40  marks  per  hectare  at  the  most,  there  still  re- 
mains a  clear  cash  profit  of  175.60  marks  per  hectare  for 
the  grain  alone,  not  counting  the  additional  gain  in  straw 
and  chaff.  By  a  number  of  experimental  cultivations, 
Ruemker  furthermore  ascertained  that  by  selecting  that 
kind  of  grain  best  suited  to  each  particular  vicinity,  the 
harvests  might  be  increased  and  the  gross  receipts  im- 
proved, on  an  average,  as  follows : 

Rye    . . .  .by  300 —  700  kilogr's  of  grain  or  by  42 —  98  marks  per  hectare 
Wheat  . .  "   300—  800     "        "        "      "  "  45—120      "        "      " 
Barley   .  .  "   200—  700     "        "        "      "  "  34—119      "        "      " 
Oats     ..."  200—1200     "        "        "      "  "  26—156      "        "      " 

The  gain  obtained  from  assorting  the  seed  and  from  a 
proper  selection  of  the  kind  of  wheat  taken  together, 
would,  in  the  raising  of  wheat  alone,  increase  the  har- 
vest by  1500  to  2000  kilograms  of  grain,  or  by  220  to  295 
marks  per  hectare. 

In  a  paper  on  "The  Future  of  German  Agriculture," 
it  has  been  shown  how  tremendously  all  agricultural 
products  could  be  increased  by  sufficient  and  appropri- 
ate fertilization,  by  supplying  mineral  manure,  as  hypo- 
phosphate,  phosphoric  acid,  etc.  The  German  harvest  of 
wheat  might  be  increased  on  an  average  of  36  cwts.  per 
hectare,  and  the  harvest  of  rye  by  24  cwts.  per  hectare. 
Moreover,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  land  used  for  the 


422  Socialism  and  Agriculture 

cultivation  of  rye  at  present,  might,  by  proper  manuring, 
be  used  for  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  so  that  the  average 
harvest  of  grain  for  bread — two-fifths  of  wheat,  three- 
fifths  of  rye — might  amount  to  28.8  cwts.  per  hectare. 
After  the  deduction  of  seed  and  of  grain  of  inferior  qual- 
ity, there  would  still  remain  26  cwts.  per  hectare  to 
feed  the  nation.  The  7.9  million  hectares  that  are  planted 
with  wheat  and  rye  at  present  might  be  increased  by  an 
additional  1.5  million  hectares  of  pasture,  fallow-ground, 
heaths  and  moor-land,  so  that,  with  an  average  crop  of  26 
cwts.  per  hectare  and  a  cultivated  area  of  9.4  million  hec- 
tares, a  production  of  251.92  million  cwts.  of  grain  for 
bread  might  be  obtained.  With  an  annual  consumption 
of  175  kilograms  for  every  person,  enough  grain  for  bread 
could  be  raised  to  supply  the  needs  of  144  million  per- 
sons. At  the  time  of  the  census  of  1900,  Germany  had  a 
population  of  approximately  56,345,000  inhabitants,  and 
even  at  that  time  science  and  technics  were  sufficiently 
far  advanced  that  the  German  soil  might  have  supplied 
a  population  two  and  a  half  times  as  large  with  bread. 
Under  the  present  agricultural  system,  with  the  scattered 
private  ownership  of  land,  Germany  is  obliged  to  import 
annually  about  one-ninth  of  its  requisite  supply  of  wheat 
and  rye.  If,  under  the  present  agricultural  system,  simi- 
lar quantities  were  to  be  raised,  it  would  mean  so  great 
an  increase  in  the  cost  of  articles  of  food,  that  a  majority 
of  the  people  could  not  afford  to  buy  them,  and  that 
would  not  answer  the  purpose.  These  results  can  be  ob- 
tained only  by  communistic  methods,  when  carried  out 
on  the  largest  scale ;  but  of  course  the  authors  quoted 
above  do  not  think  of  that  possibility.  According  to  cal- 
culations made  by  them,  by  means  of  an  intensified  culti- 
vation of  the  soil,  the  products  of  German  agriculture 
might  be  increased  as  follows: 


Potatoes  

AAA.O 

Oats   barley  peas  and  beans  

78.7 

Hay                                 

146.2 

Fodder    

IIO.O 

Turnios  (for  cattle}.. 

226.0 

The  Socialization  of  Society  423 

If  we  furthermore  take  into  consideration  the  sugges- 
tions by  Mack,  quoted  above,  showing  that  a  very  great 
number  of  animals  for  drawing  and  carrying  loads  might 
be  dispensed  with  by  the  introduction  of  electric  power, 
we  find  that  the  breeding  of  cattle  for  nourishment  might 
be  considerably  increased,  or  that  much  of  the  land  used 
for  pasture  might  be  planted  with  food  for  man. 

Another  field  of  agricultural  activity  that  might  be  de- 
veloped to  a  far  greater  extent,  is  poultry  breeding.  The 
value  of  eggs  imported  by  Germany  annually  amounts  to 
149.7  million  marks  (1907),  and  that  of  live  poultry  to 
over  40  million  marks.  The  institutions  for  raising  and 
breeding  poultry  are  still  sadly  undeveloped.  The  con- 
centrated methods  of  agriculture  on  a  large  scale  will 
lead  to  the  concentration  of  farming  establishments,  such 
as  stables,  store-houses,  ice-houses,  fodder  and  feeding; 
much  time,  labor  and  material  be  saved,  and  practical 
advantages  will  be  obtained  that  are  inaccessible  to  small 
and  medium-sized  establishments,  and  are  but  rarely  en- 
joyed by  large  ones.  How  insufficient,  for  instance,  are 
the  hygienic  institutions  in  most  stables,  how  inadequate 
are  the  provisions  made  for  the  feeding  and  care  of  the 
cattle  and  poultry !  That  cleanliness,  air  and  light  are  as 
necessary  to  animals  as  to  human  beings  and  have  a  fa- 
vorable influence  on  their  condition,  is  a  fact  known  but 
little  among  peasants  of  the  twentieth  century.  It  is 
self-understood  that,  by  a  general  dissemination  and  ap- 
plication of  this  knowledge,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  eggs, 
honey,  meat,  etc.,  will  be  obtained  under  far  more  sani- 
tary and  favorable  conditions  than  at  present.  By  a 
skillful  combination  and  application  of  human  labor 
power  and  machinery,  not  only  the  cultivation  of  the 
fields,  but  also  the  reaping  of  the  harvest  will  be  done  by 
ways  and  means  unknown  to  us  to-day.  The  erection  of 
great  halls  for  shelter  will  make  it  possible  to  gather  in 
the  crops  during  any  kind  of  weather,  and,  by  bringing 
them  in  quickly,  the  enormous  losses  will  be  avoided  that 
are  so  frequent  now.  According  to  v.  d.  Goltz,  during 
one  single  unfavorable  harvest-time,  8  to  9  million  marks 
are  lost  on  crops  in  Mecklenburg,  and  in  the  government 
district  of  Koenigsberg,  from  12  to  15  million  marks. 


424  Socialism  and  Agriculture 

5. — Vine-Culture  of  the  Future. 

The  cultivation  of  fruit  and  berries  and  horticulture 
will  also  attain  a  degree  of  development  in  the  future 
that  hitherto  seemed  almost  impossible.  To  what  extent 
the  cultivation  of  fruit  is  still  neglected  in  Germany,  al- 
though the  German  climate  is  particularly  favorable  to 
the  cultivation  of  orchards,  especially  apple-orchards, 
may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  more  than  40  million 
marks'  worth  of  fresh  fruit  and  more  than  20  million 
marks'  worth  of  dried  fruit  are  imported  annually.  One 
look  at  the  poor  condition  of  our  fruit-trees  in  the  greater 
part  of  Germany,  even  in  countries  like  Wurtemberg, 
which  are  famed  for  their  orchards,  makes  this  easily  un- 
derstood. Here  a  wide  field  presents  itself  to  agricultural 
and  horticultural  activity.  The  cultivation  of  berries  is 
just  begun  and  presents  a  no  more  favorable  aspect. 

By  applying  artificial  heat  and  moisture  in  large,  shel- 
tered halls,  it  becomes  possible  to  raise  vegetables,  fruit 
and  berries  in  large  quantities  during  any  season  of  the 
year.  The  florists'  show-windows  in  our  larfe  cities 
present  as  gorgeous  an  array  of  flowers  in  mid-winter  as 
they  do  in  summer.  Wonderful  progress  in  the  line  of 
artificial  cultivation  of  fruit,  is  marked  by  the  artificial 
"vineyard"  of  Garden-Director  Haupt,  in  Brieg  in  Silesia, 
which  has  since  been  imitated  elsewhere,  and  already  had 
been  tried  in  other  countries;  for  instance,  in  England. 
Its  equipment  and  the  results  achieved  were  so  enticingly 
described  in  the  "Vossishe  Gazette,"  of  September  27, 
1890,  that  an  extract  of  this  description  follows : 

"The  glass-house  is  situated  upon  an  approximately 
square  field  of  500  square  meters.  It  is  from  4.5  to  5 
meters  high,  and  its  walls  face  exactly  north,  south,  east 
and  west.  It  contains  twelve  rows  of  double  fruit-walls, 
running  from  south  to  north,  1.8  meters  apart,  which  at 
the  same  time  serve  as  supports  to  the  flat  roof.  In  a  bed 
1.25  meters  deep,  resting  on  a  bank  of  earth  25  centime- 
ters strong,  which  contains  a  net  of  pipes  for  drainage 
and  ventilation  of  the  soil,  a  bed,  whose  heavy  ground 
has  been  made  loose  and  fertile  by  the  introduction  of 
chalk,  rubbish,  sand,  manure,  bone-dust  and  potash,  Mr. 
Haupt  planted  360  grapevines  of  the  kinds  that  yield  the 


The  Socialization  of  Society  425 

best  grape-juice  in  the  Rhine  Province:  White  and  red 
Riessling  and  Trammer,  white  and  blue  Moscatelle  and 
Burgundy. 

The  ventilation  of  the  place  is  effected  by  several  aper- 
tures in  the  side  walls  and  by  slats  20  meters  long  at- 
tached to  the  roof,  which  can  be  opened  and  closed  by  a 
lever,  and  afford  protection  from  the  storm  in  any  posi- 
tion. Twenty-six  showers  serve  to  water  the  vines.  They 
are  attached  to  rubber  pipes  1.25  meters  long  that  are 
suspended  from  a  tank  above.  But  Mr.  Haupt  has  intro- 
duced still  another  truly  ingenious  contrivance  for  quick- 
ly and  thoroughly  watering  his  'wine-hall'  and  his  Vine- 
yards':  an  artificial  generator  of  rain.  Under  the  roof 
four  long  copper  tubes  are  attached  that  contain  fine 
perforations  half  a  meter  apart.  Through  these  perfora- 
tions fine  streams  of  water  are  driven  upward,  strike 
small  round  sieves  made  of  gauze,  and,  by  beingf  filtered 
through  them,  are  scattered  in  fountains  of  a  fine  spray. 
It  takes  several  hours  to  water  the  place  thoroughly  by 
means  of  the  rubber  tubes ;  but  one  need  open  only  one 
faucet,  and  throughout  the  building  a  gentle,  refreshing 
rain  falls  down  evenly  upon  the  vines,  the  ground  ana 
the  granite  walks.  Without  any  artificial  heating,  only 
by  the  neutral  qualities  of  the  glass-house,  the  tempera- 
ture can  be  raised  from  8  to  TO  degrees  R.  above  the 
outside  air.  In  order  to  protect  the  vines  from  their  most 
dangerous  and  destructive  enemy,  the  vine-louse,  in  case 
one  should  appear,  it  will  suffice  to  close  all  the  drainv 
pipes  and  open  all  the  faucets.  Thereby  an  inundation  of 
the  vines  will  be  caused  which,  as  is  well  known,  this 
enemy  cannot  resist.  The  glass  walls  and  roof  protect 
the  vineyard  from  storm,  cold,  frost  and  superfluous  rain. 
A  fine  wire  netting,  spread  over  roof  and  walls,  affords 
protection  from  hail.  The  artificial  rain  contrivance  is  a 
safeguard  against  draught.  The  wine-grower  in  such  a 
vineyard  makes  his  own  weather  and  can  mock  the  dan- 
gers of  all  the  incalculable  whims  and  treacheries  of  in- 
different or  cruel  nature  that  threaten  with  ruin  the  fruit 
of  the  wine-grower's  toil  and  care." 

Mr.  Haupt's  expectations  were  fully  realized.  The 
vines  thrived  splendidly  in  the  even  temperature.  The 
grapes  ripened  to  their  fullest  perfection,  and  in  the  fall 


426  Socialism  and  Agriculture. 

of  1885  yielded  a  juice  that  was  not  inferior  in  richness 
and  sweetness  to  any  obtained  along  the  Rhine.  The 
grapes  thrived  equally  well  in  the  following  year,  and  in 
that  most  unfavorable  year,  1887.  When  the  vines  have 
attained  their  full  height  of  five  meters  and  bear  an  abun- 
dance of  grapes  to  their  very  top,  in  this  establishment 
about  20  hectoliters  of  wine  can  be  produced  annually, 
and  the  cost  of  wine  per  bottle  to  the  producer  will  not 
exceed  40  "pfennige"  (10  cents). 

There  is  no  reason  why  this  new  and  most  favorable 
system  of  vine-culture  should  not  be  introduced  on  a 
large  scale.  Glass-houses  like  this  one,  covering  one-fifth 
of  an  acre,  can  without  doubt  also  be  erected  on  areas  of 
one  acre,  or  more,  equipped  with  the  same  contrivances 
for  ventilation,  drainage  and  artificial  rain.  Here  the 
vegetation  will  set  in  some  weeks  earlier  than  in  the  open 
air,  and  during  the  time  of  bloom  the  young  vines  will  be 
protected  from  May-frosts,  rain  and  cold;  while  the 
grapes  ripen  they  will  be  protected  from  drought,  from 
pilfering  birds  and  thieves  and  excessive  moisture ;  during 
the  entire  year  they  will  be  protected  from  the  vine-louse, 
and  the  berries  will  remain  safely  on  the  vine  until  No- 
vember or  December.  In  an  address  delivered  before  the 
Society  for  the  Advancement  of  Horticulture,  in  1888, 
from  which  I  have  taken  several  technical  terms  in  this 
description  of  Haupt's  "vineyard,"  the  inventor  and 
founder  of  same  closed  with  the  following  alluring  per- 
spective of  the  future:  "Since  this  vine-culture  can  be 
carried  on  throughout  Germany,  also  on  otherwise  bar- 
ren, sandy  or  stony  soil  (as,  for  instance,  in  the  March), 
after  it  has  been  made  arable  and  watered,  it  becomes 
evident  that  vine-culture  under  glass  becomes  a  matter  of 
national  interest.  I  would  like  to  call  this  method  the 
vine-culture  of  the  future."  The  author  then  described 
how  the  wine  obtained  form  the  grapes  had  met  with  the 
highest  approval  of  experts,  and  added:  "The  vineyard 
also  left  sufficient  room  for  the  cultivation  of  other  plants. 
Thus  Mr.  Haupt,  between  every  two  vines  raises  one 
rose-bush,  which  presents  a  wealth  of  bloom  during  April 
and  May.  On  the  eastern  and  western  walls  he  also 
raises  peaches,  and  during  April  their  luxuriant  blossoms 
must  impart  to  this  glass  palace  a  fairy-like  appearance.'* 


The  Socialization  of  Society  427 

Recently  Belgium  has  bestowed  special  attention  upon 
this  method  of  fruit-culture.  But  in  Germany  also  it  is 
being  extensively  applied,  for  instance,  in  raising  pine- 
apples. Nothing  will  prevent  the  establishment  of  simi- 
lar hot-house  plantations  for  various  kinds  of  plants,  so 
that,  with  many  products  of  the  soil,  we  may  enjoy  the 
luxury  of  a  double  or  threefold  harvest.  At  present  these 
undertakings  are  primarily  a  question  of.  profit,  and  their 
products  are  enjoyed  only  by  the  favored  few.  But  in 
Socialistic  society  the  only  question  will  be  whether  suf- 
ficient labor-power  is  obtainable.  This  being  the  case 
the  task  will  be  accomplished  to  the  common  advantage 
of  all. 

6. — Measures  to  Prevent  Exhaustion  of  the  Soil. 

So  we  see  that,  even  under  present-day  conditions,  a 
thorough  transformation  in  the  methods  of  procuring 
food  is  taking  place.  But  the  utilization  of  all  these 
discoveries  is  extremely  slow,  because  powerful  classes 
— the  agrarians  and  their  social  and  political  supporters — 
are  profoundly  interested  in  suppressing  them.  Although 
in  spring  weekly  prayers  are  offered  up  in  all  churches 
for  a  good  crop,  individual  members  of  the  congrega- 
tions may  feel  like  that  pious  man  who  implored  his 
patron  saint:  "St.  Florian,  protect  my  house,  set  others 
on  fire !"  For  if  the  crops  turn  out  well  in  all  countries 
the  prices  are  lowered,  and  this  possibility  is  dreaded  by 
agrarians.  What  is  advantageous  to  others  is  harmful  to 
him,  and  therefore  he  is  a  silent  opponent  of  every  dis- 
covery or  invention  that  benefits  others  besides  himself. 
Our  society  dwells  in  constant  discord  with  itself. 

In  order  to  maintain  the  soil  in  a  fertile  condition  and 
to  improve  it,  sufficient  manure  is  essential.  To  obtain 
same  will  be  an  important  task  for  the  new  society  also.* 


*There  is  a  recipe  for  the  fertility  of  fields  and  the  eternal  duration 
of  their  crops;  if  properly  applied  it  will  prove  more  remunerative 
than  any  that  has  ever  been  resorted  to  by  agriculture.  It  is  the  fol- 
lowing :  Every  farmer  who  takes  a  bag  of  grain  or  a  hundred-weight 
of  rape,  carrots,  potatoes,  etc.  to  market  shall,  like  the  Chinese  coolie, 
bring  back  with  him  as  much,  if  possible  more,  of  the  ingredients  of 
his  products  of  the  soil  and  shall  give  them  back  to  the  field  from 


428  Socialism  and  Agriculture 

Manure  is  to  the  fields  what  food  is  to  man,  and  just  as 
not  every  kind  of  food  is  equally  nourishing  to  man,  so 
not  every  kind  of  manure  is  of  equal  value  to  the  soil. 
The  ground  must  be  given  exactly  the  same  chemical 
substances  that  have  been  withdrawn  from  it  by  the 
reaping  of  a  crop,  and  such  chemical  substances,  as  arc 
required  for  the  cultivation  of  a  certain  kind  of  plant, 
must  be  introduced  in  large  quantities.  Therefore  the 
study  of  chemistry  and  its  practical  application  will  de- 
velop to  an  extent  unknown  to-day. 

Now  animal  and  human  excrements  contain  the  very 
chemical  substances  that  are  suited  to  the  cultivation  of 
human  food.  Therefore  it  is  important  to  obtain  and 
properly  distribute  them.  Little  is  done  in  this  respect 
at  present.  ^Especially  the  cities  and  industrial  centers, 
which  receive  large  quantities  of  food,  return  very  little 
of  the  valuable  offal  to  the  soil.  As  a  result  the  farms 
that  are  situated  far  from  the  cities  and  industrial  cen- 
ters and  that  annually  ship  the  greater  part  of  their 
products  into  these,  suffer  from  want  of  manure.  Often 
the  offal  obtainable  on  the  farms  does  not  suffice,  be- 
cause the  human  beings  and  animals  from  which  it  is  ob- 
tained have  consumed  only  a  small  portion  of  the  crops. 
So  an  exhaustion  of  the  soil  would  be  sure  to  take  place, 
unless  the  want  of  natural  manure  were  made  up  for  by 
artificial  manure.  All  countries  that  export  agricultural 
products  and  receive  no  manure  in  return,  will  sooner  or 


which  he  has  taken  them.  He  shall  not  despise  a  potatoe  peal  or  a 
blade  of  straw,  but  shall  remember  that  one  of  his  potatoes  needs  the 
peal  and  one  of  his  ears  of  corn  the  blade,  His  expense  for  this 
import  is  slight  and  the  investment  is  sure ;  no  savings  bank  is  safer, 
and  no  capital  will  bring  a  higher  rate  of  interest  The  surface  of  his 
field  will  bring  forth  the  double  amount  in  ten  years.  He  will  pro- 
duce more  corn,  more  meat  and  more  cheese  without  spending  more 
time  01  performing  more  labor,  and  he  will  not  be  in  constant  anxi- 
ety seeking  new  and  unknown  means  to  keep  his  field  fertile  by  other 
methods.  Old  bones,  soot  and  ashes,  the  blood  of  animals  and  all 
kinds  of  offal  should  be  collected  in  establishments  erected  for  this 
purpose  and  prepared  for  shipment.  The  administrative  and  police 
officials  in  the  cities  should  see  to  it  that  by  an  appropriate  arrange- 
ment of  drains  and  cess-pools  this  waste  of  material  is  avoided. 
Liebig— "Chemical  Letter?,"  Leipsic  and  Heidelberg,  1865. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  429 

later  be  ruined  by  the  impoverishment  of  their  soil.  This 
is  the  case  with  Hungary,  Russia,  the  Danubian  princi- 
palities, etc. 

In  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  Liebig  solved  his 
theory  of  the  reproduction  of  substance  for  arable  soil, 
which  led  to  the  use  of  concentrated  manure.  Schultze- 
Lupitz  proved  that  certain  plants,  although  not  given 
manure  containing  nitrogen,  still  added  nitrogen  to  the 
soil,  a  phenomenon  that  was  explained  later  by  Hellrie- 
gel.  He  showed  that  the  millions  of  bacilli,  acting  on 
certain  leguminous  plants,  obtain  the  nitrogen  for  the 
nourishment  of  the  plant  directly  from  the  air.*  Chem- 
istry constitutes  one  phase  of  modern,  scientific  agricul- 
ture, and  bacteriology  constitutes  the  other.  In  its  de- 
posits of  potash,  Thomas-slag,  hypophosphate  and  phos- 
phoric acid,  Germany  possesses  a  number  of  inexhaust- 
ible sources  of  mineral  manure.  A  proper  application 
of  these,  combined  with  an  appropriate  tilling  of  the 
soil,  makes  possible  a  production  of  enormous  quantities 
of  food. 

An  idea  of  the  importance  of  the  various  kinds  of  arti- 
ficial manure  may  be  gained  from  the  following  figures: 
During  1906  Germany  consumed  about  300  million 
marks'  worth  of  artificial  manure.  Among  these  were 
sulphate  of  ammonia  for  58.3  millions;  nitrate  ot  soda 
for  1 20,  and  the  rest  was  expended  for  Thomas-slag, 
hypophosphate,  potash,  guano,  etc.  The  most  important 
of  these  fertilizers  are  the  ones  containing  nitrogen.  The 
great  importance  of  this  substance  may  be  seen  from  the 
following:  Investigations  made  by  Wagner  showed  that 
crops  of  oats  from  a  field  in  Hessia  diminished  by  17  per 
cent,  when  there  was  a  dearth  of  phosphoric  acid ;  by  19 
per  cent,  when  there  was  a  dearth  of  potash,  and  by  89 
per  cent,  when  there  was  a  dearth  of  nitrogen.  The  net 
profits  for  one  year  per  hectare  were :  When  the  ferti- 
lizer contained  all  the  needful  ingredients,  96  marks; 
when  the  potash  was  omitted,  62  marks ;  when  phos- 
phoric acid  was  omitted,  48  marks;  when  nitrogen  was 


*German  Agriculture  at  the  Close  of  the  Century.  Address  deliv- 
ered by  Dr.  Max  Delbruek  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Agriculture,  on 
January  12,  1900. 


43°  Socialism  and  Agriculture 

omitted,  5  marks.  It  has  been  calculated  that  if  Germany 
would  double  its  nitrogen-manure,  it  could  produce  not 
only  sufficient  grain  and  potatoes  to  supply  the  demands 
of  its  own  population,  but  could  also  export  considerable 
quantities.  And  the  chief  sources  of  this  valuable  ma- 
nure, the  deposits  of  nitrate  soda  in  Chili,  like  the  de- 
posits of  guano,  are  rapidly  being  used  up,  while  the 
demand  for  nitrogen  preparations  constantly  increases  in 
Germany,  France,  England,  and,  during  the  last  ten 
years,  in  the  United  States  of  America  also.  As  early  as 
1899  the  English  chemist,  William  Crookes,  propounded 
this  question  and  designated  it  as  one  of  greater  impor- 
tance than  the  possibility  of  proximate  exhaustion  of  the 
British  coal  mines.  He  therefore  regarded  it  to  be  one  of 
the  most  important  tasks  of  chemistry  to  manufacture 
nitrogen  fertilizers  from  the  tremendous  nitrogen  reser- 
voir of  the  atmosphere.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the 
quantity  of  air  covering  one  square  centimeter  of  ground, 
weighs  approximately  i  kilogram,  and  that  four-fifths  of 
it  are  nitrogen.  From  this  may  be  calculated  that  the 
nitrogen  contained  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  earth, 
amounts,  in  round  figures,  to  4000  million  tons.  The 
present  annual  consumption  of  nitrate  of  soda  is,  in 
round  figures,  300,000  tons.  So  even  if  the  nitrogen  in 
the  atmosphere  were  not  replaced,  it  would  suffice  to  sup- 
ply the  demand  of  the  entire  earth  during  14,000  million 
years.  This  problem  has  been  practically  solved.  In 
1899,  A.  Frank  and  N.  Caro  produced  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium that  contains  from  14  to  22  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 
The  new  fertilizer  has  been  introduced  upon  the  market 
under  the  name  of  calcareous  nitrogen.  But  Frank's  and 
Caro's  method  is  not  the  only  one.  In  1903  the  Norwe- 
gians, C.  Birkeland  and  S.  Eyde,  succeeded  in  transform- 
ing the  atmospheric  nitrogen  into  nitric  acid  by  combus- 
tion, by  means  of  electricity.  This  second  method  fur- 
nishes a  product  that  is  equal  to  Chili  nitrate  of  soda  in 
every  respect  and  even  superior  to  it  for  certain  kinds  of 
soil.  In  1905  Otto  Schoenherr  succeeded  in  finding  a 
method  still  superior  to  that  of  Birkeland  and  Eyde.  For, 
besides  the  electric  power,  only  the  cheapest  materials 
are  required,  i.  e.,  water  and  limestone.  So  agriculture 
has  been  given  a  new  fertilizer  that  can  be  obtained  by  a 


The  Socialization  of  Society  431 

purely  technical  industrial  process,  and  has  an  unlimited 
supply  at  its  disposal.* 

According  to  A.  Mueller,  a  healthy  adult  secretes  an- 
nually on  an  average  of  48.5  kilograms  of  solid  and  43.8 
kilograms  of  liquid  matter.  Estimated  by  the  present 
prices  of  manure,  these  materials  represent  a  value  of 
about  5.15  marks.  The  great  difficulty  in  fully  utilizing 
this  material  lies  in  the  establishment  of  large  and  ap- 
propriate contrivances  for  collecting  same  and  in  the  high 
cost  of  transportation.  A  great  portion  of  the  excrements 
from  the  cities  is  conducted  into  our  rivers  and  streams 
and  pollutes  them.  In  the  same  way,  the  offal  and  refuse 
from  kitchens  and  industrial  establishments  that  might 
also  be  used  for  manure,  are  usually  carelessly  wasted. 

The  new  society  will  find  ways  and  means  to  prevent 
this  waste.  It  will  solve  the  problem  more  easily,  be- 
cause the  large  cities  will  gradually  cease  to  exist  owing 
to  the  decentralization  of  the  population. 

7. — Removal  of  the  Contrast  between  City  and  Country. 

No  one  can  adjudge  our  modern  large  cities  a  healthy 
product.  The  prevailing  economic  and  industrial  system 
constantly  attracts  great  masses  of  the  population  to  the 
cities.**  They  are  the  chief  seats  of  industry  and  com- 

*According  to  Prof.  Benthsen  on  sulphuric  acid  of  the  atmosphere. 
Lecture  delivered  at  the  seventh  international  congress  in  London. — 
Journal  of  Applied  Chemistry,  1909. 

**According  to  the  census  of  June  12,  1907,  Germany  had  24  large 
cities  with  more  than  100,000  inhabitants  each.  In  1816,  there  were 
only  two  cities  in  Germany  having  more  than  loo.ooo  inhabitants.  In 
1871,  there  were  only  8  of  them.  The  population  of  Berlin  was,  ap- 
proximately, 826,000  in  1871;  1,880,000  in  1900;  2,040,148  in  1905.  So 
its  population  had  increased  by  147  per  cent,  in  34  years.  "Greater 
Berlin"  had  875,328  inhabitants  in  1871,  and  2469009  inhabitants  in 
1900.  In  1907,  42  large  cities  had  11,790,000  inhabitants,  and  their 
proportion  to  the  entire  population  now  amounts  to,  approximately. 
19  per  cent.  A  number  of  these  large  cities  found  it  necessary  to  ad- 
mit into  their  municipalities  a  number  of  the  suburban  factory  towns 
that,  according  to  their  population,  were  cities  in  themselves,  and  so 
they  grew  in  leaps  and  bounds.  During  the  period  from  1895  to  1905, 
Leipsic  increased  from  170,000  to  503,672  inhabitants;  Cologne  from 


433  Socialism  and  Agriculture 

merce,  and  there  all  the  highways  of  traffic  converge. 
There  the  owners  of  great  fortunes  reside,  and  there  the 
civil,  judicial  and  military  authorities  are  located.  In  the 
cities  are  found  the  great  institutions  of  learning,  the 
academies  of  art,  the  places  of  enjoyment  and  recreation, 
exhibitions,  museums,  theatres,  concert-halls,  etc.  Thou- 
sands are  attracted  by  their  occupations,  thousands  by 
pleasure,  and  thousands  of  others  by  the  hope  of  greater 
gain  and  a  more  pleasant  life. 

But  this  formation  of  great  cities,  figuratively  speak- 
ing, reminds  one  of  a  man  whose  girth  is  constantly  in- 
creasing while  his  legs  are  constantly  growing  leaner, 
until  they  can  no  longer  carry  the  load.  In  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  these  cities  all  the  villages  assume  an  urban 
character  also,  and  here  the  proletarians  flock  together. 
These  usually  poor  municipalities  must  tax  their  mem- 
bers to  the  utmost  and  still  are  unable  to  meet  all  de- 
mands. When  they  have  finally  extended  clqse  to  the 
large  city  they  are  swallowed  up  by  it,  as  a  planet  that 
has  come  too  close  to  the  sun.  But  thereby  the  con- 
ditions of  life  are  not  improved.  On  the  contrary,  they 
become  more  unfavorable  by  the  crowding  of  masses  in 
congested  dwellings.  These  gatherings  of  masses  are 
necessary  in  present-day  development  and,  to  a  certain 
degree,  form  the  centers  of  revolution;  but  in  the  new 
society  they  will  have  accomplished  their  purpose.  Their 
gradual  dissolution  will  be  inevitable,  for  then  the  con- 
trary will  take  place.  The  population  will  migrate  from 
the  large  cities  to  the  country,  will  form  new  communi- 
ties adapted  to  the  changed  conditions,  and  will  com- 
bine industrial  and  agricultural  activity. 

As  soon  as  the  urban  population,  as  a  result  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  means  of  transportation,  methods  of 
production,  etc.,  is  enabled  to  transfer  to  the  country  all 
its  accustomed  requirements  of  culture,  its  institutions 


161,000  to  428,722;  Magdeburg  from  114,000  to  240633;  Munich  from 
270,000  to  538,983 ;  Breslau  from  299,000  to  470,904 ;  Frankfort  on  the 
Main  from  154,000  to  334,978;  Hannover  from  140,000  to  250,024; 
Duesseldorf  from  115,000  to  253,274;  Nuremberg  from  115,000  to 
294,426;  Chemnitz  from  111,000  to  294,927;  Essen  from  65,074  to 
239,692,  etc. 


The  Socialization  of  Society      •  433 

of  learning,  museums,  theaters,  concert-halls,  libraries,' 
social  centers,  etc.,  the  migration  will  begin.  Life  will 
offer  all  the  advantages  of  the  former  large  city  without 
its  disadvantages.  The  dwellings  will  be  far  more  sani- 
tary and  pleasant.  The  rural  population  will  participate 
in  industry,  and  the  industrial  population  will  participate 
in  agriculture  and  horticulture,  a  variety  of  occupations 
that  only  a  few  persons  can  enjoy  at  present,  and  only 
by  excessively  long  and  hard  labor. 

As  on  all  other  fields,  the  bourgeois  world  is  paving 
the  way  for  this  development,  as  each  year  a  greater  num- 
ber of  industrial  establishments  are  transferred  to  the 
country.  The  unfavorable  conditions  prevailing  in  the 
large  cities,  high  rents  and  high  wages,  compel  many 
manufacturers  to  transfer  their  establishments  to  rural 
districts.  On  the  other  hand,  the  large  landowners  are 
becoming  industrialists  (manufacturers  of-  sugar,  distil- 
lers, brewers,  manufacturers  of  cement,  earthenware, 
bricks,  woodwork,  paper,  etc.)  Even  to-day  tens  of  thou- 
sands of  persons  who  work  in  the  large  cities  have  their 
homes  in  the  suburbs,  because  the  improved  means  of 
transportation  enable  them  to  live  in  this  manner. 

By  the  decentralization  of  the  population  the  present 
contrast  between  urban  and  rural  population  will  be  r 
moved.  The  peasant,  this  modern  helot,  who,  until  now, 
in  his  isolation  in  the  country,  has  been  excluded  from 
all  modern  cultural  development,  wilt  then  become  a 
civilized  being*  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word.  The 


*Professor  Adolf  Wagner  says  in  his  "Text-book  of  Political 
Economy  by  Rau"  that  has  been  previously  quoted:  "The  small 
farms  constitute  an  economic  basis  that  cannot  be  replaced  by  any 
other  institution  for  a  very  important  part  of  the  population,  an  in- 
dependent, self-sustaining  peasantry  and  its  peculiar  socio-political 
position  and  function."  If  the  author  would  not  idealize  the  small 
farmer  "&  tout  prix"  to  please  his  conservative  friends,  he  would 
have  to  recognize  the  small  farmer  as  the  poorest  of  beings.  Under 
existing  conditions  the  small  farmer  is  almost  inaccessible  to  a  higher 
culture.  He  works  hard  from  dawn  till  darkness  and  lives  like  a  dog. 
Meat,  butter,  eggs,  milk  that  he  produces  are  not  consumed  by  him; 
he  produces  for  others.  Under  existing  conditions  he  cannot  attain 
a  higher  status  of  life  and  so  becomes  an  element  detrimental  to  the 
progress  of  civilization.  He  who  likes  retrogression  because  it  serves 


434  Socialism  and  Agriculture 

wish  once  expressed  by  Prince  Bismarck,  that  he  might 
see  the  large  cities  destroyed,  will  be  fulfilled,  but  in  a 
different  sense  than  he  anticipated.** 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 
Abolition  of  the  State. 

When  we  review  what  has  been  set  forth  so  far,  we 
find  that,  with  the  abolition  of  the  private  ownership  of 
the  means  of  production,  and  their  transformation  into 
social  property,  those  evils  gradually  disappear  that  bour- 
geois society  presents  on  all  sides,  and  which  are  becom- 
ing more  and  more  unbearable.  Class  rule  will  cease.  So- 
ciety will  apply  all  its  activities  according  to  its  own 
plans,  and  will  guide  and  control  itself.  By  abolition  of 
the  wage  system,  the  exploitation  of  man  by  man,  decep- 
tion and  fraud,  adulteration  of  food,  speculation,  etc.,  will 
be  eradicated.  The  halls  of  the  Temples  of  Mammon 
will  be  empty,  for  stocks,  bonds,  promissory  notes,  mort- 

fages,  etc.,  will  have  become  waste-paper.  The  words  of 
chiller:  "All  old  scores  shall  be  erased  and  the  world 
shall  make  its  peace,"  will  be  realized,  and  the  scriptural 
saying:  "In  the  sweat  of  thy  brow  shalt  thou  eat  thy 
bread,"  will  then  prevail  with  the  heroes  of  the  stock-ex- 
change and  the  drones  of  capitalism,  also.  The  employers 
and  capitalists  will  be  relieved  forever  of  that  worry  about 
their  property  which,  so  they  pathetically  assure  us,  is 
often  even  harder  to  bear  than  the  workingman's  lot  of 
uncertainty  and  privation.  The  excitements  of  specula- 
tion, that  give  so  many  of  our  stock-jobbers  heart-dis- 
eases and  apoplexy,  and  cause  them  to  be  the  victims  of 
nervous  prostration,  will  be  spared  them  in  the  future. 


his  own  ends,  may  desire  the  continued  existence  of  this  social  stra- 
tum, but  human  progress  demands  that  it  should  cease  to  exist. 

*In  the  Union  Parliament  at  Erfurt,  in  1850,  Prince  Bismarck 
raged  against  the  large  cities  because  they  were  "hot-beds  of  revolu- 
tion" and  should  therefore  be  demolished.  He  was  right.  In  the 
modern  proletariat  bourgeois  society  produces  its  own  "grave-dig- 
gers." 


The  Socialization  of  Society  435 

Freedom  from  care  will  be  their  lot  and  that  of  their  de- 
scendants, and  they  will  not  deplore  this  lot. 

With  the  abolition  of  private  property  and  class  antag- 
onism, the  state,  too,  will  gradually  pass  out  of  existence. 
"As  the  capitalistic  method  of  production  converts  ever 
greater  numbers  of  the  population  into  proletarians,  it 
creates  the  power  that,  under  penalty  of  its  own  destruc- 
tion, is  destined  to  bring  about  the  transformation. 
Since  its  tendencies  are  to  convert  into  state  property  the 
socialized  means  of  production,  it  blazes  the  trail  for  the 
achievement  of  this  transformation.  .  .  ." 

The  state  was  the  official  representative  of  society  as  a 
whole,  its  unification  in  a  visible  body;  but  it  was  this 
only  in  so  far  as  it  was  the  state  of  that  particular  class 
which  itself  represented  society  as  a  whole  at  its  time ;  in 
antiquity,  the  slave-owning  citizen ;  in  mediaeval  days, 
the  feudal  nobility ;  in  our  own  day,  the  bourgeoisie.  By 
finally  becoming  the  actual  representative  of  society  as  a 
whole,  it  renders  itself  superfluous.  As  soon  as  there  will 
be  no  social  class  that  needs  to  be  repressed,  as  soon  as 
the  conflicts  and  excesses  will  be  removed  that  are  rooted 
in  the  present  anarchistic  methods  of  production  and  the 
individual  struggle  for  existence,  there  will-  be  nothing 
to  necessitate  a  special  power  of  repression,  a  state.  The 
first  act  wherein  the  state  will  appear  as  the  true  repre- 
sentative of  the  whole  body  social — the  act  of  taking  pos- 
session of  the  means  of  production  in  behalf  of  society — 
will  at  the  same  time  be  its  last  independent  act  as  state. 
State  interference  with  social  relations  will  become  su- 
perfluous in  one  domain  after  another  and  will  finally 
fall  into  disuse.  Instead  of  a  government  of  persons, 
there  will  be  an  administration  of  things  and  a  direction 
of  the  processes  of  production.  The  state  will  not  be 
'abolished/  it  will  die  out."* 

Together  with  the  state  will  vanish  its  representatives : 
ministers,  parliaments,  standing  armies,  police,  courts, 
lawyers  and  district  attorneys,  prison  officials,  collectors 
of  taxes  and  duty ;  in  short,  the  entire  political  apparatus. 
Armories  and  other  military  buildings,  palaces  of  justice 

*Fr.  Engels — Mr.  Eugen  Duehring's  Transformation  of  Science. 
Stuttgart,  1894. 


436  Abolition  of  the  State 

and  administration,  prisons,  etc.,  will  then  serve  better 
purposes.  Tens  of  thousands  of  laws,  decrees  and  regu- 
lations will  become  just  so  much  waste-paper;  their  only 
value  will  be  an  historical  one.  The  great  and  yet  so 
petty  parliamentary  struggles,  during  which  the  men  of 
the  tongue  imagine  that  by  their  orations  they  rule  and 
guide  the  world,  will  disappear.  They  will  make  room 
for  colleges  of  administration  and  administrative  delega- 
tions, whose  purpose  will  be  to  consider  and  determine 
the  best  means  and  methods  of  production  and  distribu- 
tion, to  decide  how  large  a  quantity  of  supplies  is  re- 
quired, to  introduce  and  utilize  new  appliances  and  im- 
provements in  art,  science,  education,  traffic,  etcw,  to  or- 
ganize and  direct  industry  and  agriculture.  All  these  are 
practical,  visible,  tangible  objects  that  will  be  objectively 
viewed  by  all,  because  no  one  will  have  any  personal  in- 
terests hostile  to  the  interests  of  society.  It  will  be  to  the 
common  interest  of  all  to  have  everything  provided  for 
and  arranged  in  the  most  effective  and  advantageous 
manner. 

The  hundreds  of  thousands  of  former  representatives 
of  the  state  will  enter  various  professions,  and  by  their 
intelligence  and  strength  will  help  to  increase  the  wealth 
and  comforts  of  society.  Neither  political  nor  common 
crimes  will  be  known  in  the  future.  Thieves  will  have 
disappeared,  because  private  property  will  have  disap- 
peared, and  in  the  new  society  everyone  will  be  able  to 
satisfy  his  wants  easily  and  conveniently  by  work.  Nor 
will  there  be  tramps  and  vagabonds,  for  they  are  the 
product  of  a  society  founded  on  private  property,  and, 
with  the  abolition  of  this  institution,  they  will  cease  to 
exist.  Murder?  Why?  No  one  can  enrich  himself  at  the 
expense  of  others,  and  even  the  murder  for  hatred  or  re- 
venge is  directly  or  indirectly  connected  with  the  social 
system.  Perjury,  false  testimony,  fraud,  theft  of  inherit- 
ance, fraudulent  failures?  There  will  be  no  private 
property  against  which  these  crimes  could  be  committed. 
Arson?  Who  should  find  pleasure  or  satisfaction  in  com- 
mitting arson  when  society  has  removed  all  cause  for 
hatred?  Counterfeiting?  Money  will  be  but  a  chimera, 
it  would  be  "loves  labor  lost."  Blasphemy?  Nonsense! 
It  will  be  left  to  good  and  almighty  God  himself  to  punish 


The  Socialization  of  Society  437 

whoever  has  offended  him,  provided  that  the  existence  of 
God  is  still  a  matter  of  controversy. 

Thus  all  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  present  "or- 
der" become  a  myth.  In  later  days  parents  will  tell  their 
children  about  them  like  about  legends  of  days  gone  by ; 
and,  when  told  of  the  persecutions  to  which  men  of  the 
new  ideas  were  subjected,  they  will  be  impressed  by  these 
accounts  just  as  we  are  impressed  by  the  accounts  of  the 
burnings  of  heretics  and  witches.  All  the  names  of  those 
"great"  men  who  distinguished  themselves  by  their  per- 
secutions of  the  new  ideas  and  were  applauded  for  it  by 
their  narrow-minded  contemporaries,  will  be  forgotten. 
At  best  they  will  only  attract  the  attention  of  the  his- 
torians engaged  in  the  research  of  old  documents.  Un- 
fortunately we  are  not  yet  living  in  that  happy  age 
when  humanity  may  breathe  freely. 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 
The  Future  of  Religion. 

As  with  the  state,  so  it  will  be  with  religion.  It  will 
not  be  "abolished,"  God  will  not  be  "dethroned,"  people 
will  not  be  "robbed  of  their  faith,"  as  all  the  foolish  argu- 
ments are  worded  that  are  directed  against  atheistic  So- 
cialists. Such  follies  Socialists  leave  to  bourgeois  ideal- 
ists who  attempted  such  measures  during  the  French 
Revolution  and,  of  course,  failed  utterly.  Without  any 
forcible  attack  or  expression  of  opinions,  of  whatever 
nature  they  may  be,  the  religious  organizations  will 
gradually  disappear  and  the  churches  with  them. 

Religion  is  the  transcendental  reflection  of  the  social 
condition  of  every  age.  In  the  measure  in  which  human 
development  pregresses  and  society  is  transformed,  re- 
ligion is  transformed  likewise.  "Religion,"  says  Marx, 
"is  the  striving  of  the  people  for  an  imaginary  happiness ; 
it  springs  from  a  state  of  society  that  requires  an  illu- 
sion,* but  disappears  when  the  recognition  of  true  happi- 


*Karl  Marx — "Critic  of  the  Philisophy  of  Law  by  Hegel." 


438  Abolition  of  the  State 

ness  and  the  possibility  of  its  realization  penetrates  the 
masses."  It  is  to  the  interest  of  the  ruling  classes  to 
prevent  this  recognition,  and  so  they  seek  to  uphold  re- 
ligion as  a  means  for  preserving  their  rule.  This  is  clear- 
ly expressed  in  the  well-known  saying:  "Religion  must 
be  preserved  for  the  people."  This  business  of  preserv- 
ing religion  for  the  people  becomes  an  important  official 
function  in  a  society  founded  on  class-rule.  A  caste  is 
formed  that  assumes  this  function  and  concentrates  all 
its  ingenuity  upon  maintaining  and  expanding  the  struc- 
ture, for  this  means  the  maintenance  and  expansion  of 
their  own  power  and  authority.  At  the  lowest  stages  of 
civilization,  among  primitive  social  conditions,  religion  is 
mere  fetichism.  With  a  higher  development  religion  be- 
comes polytheism,  and  at  a  still  higher  stage,  it  becomes 
monotheism.  It  is  not  the  gods  who  have  created  man, 
but  man  who  has  created  the  gods,  or  God.  "In  the 
image  of  himself  (man)  he  created  him  (God)  ;  not  vice- 
versa.  Even  now  monotheism  has  dissolved  itself  into 
an  all-comprising,  all-penetrating  pantheism  that  is  con- 
stantly becoming  more  volatile.  Science  has  reduced  the 
doctrine  of  creation  of  the  earth  in  six  days  to  a  myth. 
Astronomy,  mathematics  and  physics  make  heaven  a 
phantom.  They  make  of  the  stars  in  heaven  on  which 
angels  are  enthroned,  suns  and  planets  that  preclude  an- 
gelic existence. 

The  ruling  class,  seeing  its  existence  threatened,  clings 
to  religion,  the  support  of  all  authority,  as  every  ruling 
class  has  done.*  The  bourgeoisie  itself  does  not  believe, 

*The  following  utterance  by  Aristotle  shows  the  opinion  of  the 
ancients  on  this  subject:  "The  tyrant  (in  ancient  Greece  every  auto- 
crat was  called  a  tyrant)  must  appear  to  take  religion  very  seriously. 
For  if  the  subjects  believe  their  ruler  to  be  pious  and  God-fearing 
they  do  not  expect  unlawful  treatment  at  his  hands;  on  the  other 
hand  they  will  not  readily  turn  against  him  for  they  believe  that  he 
has  the  support  of  the  gods."  Aristotle — "Politics." 

"The  Prince  must  possess  noble  human  qualities  or,  at  least,  must 
seem  to  possess  them..  He  must  especially  appear  very  pious,  ex- 
tremely religious..  Though  some  will  penetrate  his  guise,  they  will 
maintain  silence  on  the  subject;  for  the  majesty  of  the  state  protects 
the  Prince  and  by  means  of  this  protection  he  may  betray  the  opposite 
qualities  *"/  his  advantage  should  require  it.  Because  he  appeared 


The  Socialization  of  Society  439 

and  by  its  entire  development  and  by  modern  science  that 
sprang  from  its  lap,  it  has  destroyed  the  faith  in  religion 
and  in  all  authority.  Their  belief  is  hypocrisy,  but  the 
Church  accepts  the  support  of  this  false  friend,  because 
it  is  sorely  in  need  of  aid  itself.  "Religion  must  be  pre- 
served for  the  people." 

For  the  new  society  no  considerations  will  exist.  Un- 
interrupted human  progress  and  unadulterated  science 
will  be  its  device.  If  some  one  should  have  religious 
needs,  he  may  satisfy  them  with  those  who  share  his  be- 
lief. Society  will  pay  no  attention  to  them.  Even  the 
priest  must  work  to  live,  and  as  he  will  improve  his  mind 
by  work,  the  time  will  come  when  even  he  will  recognize 
that  it  is  our  highest  destiny  to  be  human. 

Ethics  and  morality  exist  even  without  religion.  Only 
fools  or  hypocrites  would  assert  the  contrary.  Ethics 
and  morality  are  the  expression  of  conceptions  that  regu- 
late the  actions  and  mutual  relations  of  men,  while  re- 
ligion comprises  the  relations  of  men  to  supernatural  be- 
ings. But,  like  religion,  our  moral  conceptions,  too, 
arise  from  prevailing  social  conditions.*  The  cannibal 
considers  it  moral  to  eat  human  flesh.  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans regarded  slavery  as  a  moral  institution.  Serfdom 
seemed  moral  to  the  feudal  lords  of  the  middle  ages,  and 
the  modern  capitalist  deems  wage-slavery,  the  exploita- 
tion of  women  and  the  demoralization  of  children  by  in- 
dustrial labor,  a  highly  moral  condition.**  These  four 
stages  of  social  evolution  present  four  different  concep- 
tions of  morality,  but  in  none  of  them  does  the  highest 

pious  whenever  his  piety  did  not  interfere  with  his  interests,  the 
majority  of  his  subjects  will  consider  him  an  honorable  man,  even 
when  he  acts  contrary  to  the  maxims  of  faith  and  religion.  There- 
fore the  Prince  shall  carefully  cultivate  worship  and  church  affairs." 
Macchiavelli  in  his  famous  book,  "The  Prince." 

*Se3  K.  Kautsky — Ethics  and  the  Materialistic  Interpretation  of 
History.  Stuttgart,  1905. 

** Whenever  a  bourgeois  is  in  want  of  arguments  to  justify  what  is 
injustfiable,  it  is  a  thousand  to  one  that  he  will  make  his  appeal  to 
"morality."  In  the  spring  of  1804,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Evangelical 
Synod,  a  "liberal"  member  of  the  Berlin  Court  of  Justice  even  de- 
clared it  to  be  "moral"  that  only  taxpayers  should  have  a  vote  at 
church  meetings. 


440  The  Future  of  Religion 

moral  conception  prevail.  The  highest  moral  condition 
is  one  in  which  all  human  beings  will  be  free  and  equal;  it 
is  one  in  which  the  principle,  "do  unto  others  as  you 
would  have  others  do  unto  you,"  will  dominate  all  hu- 
man relations.  In  the  middle  ages  a  man's  pedigree  was 
the  decisive  factor;  at  the  present  time  his  social  status 
is  determined  by  his  wealth ;  in  the  future  every  human 
being  will  be  valued  for  his  own  true  worth,  and  the 
future  lies  with  Socialism. 


CHAPTER    XXV. 
The  Socialist  System  of  Education. 

The  late  member  of  the  German  diet,  Dr.  Lasker,  de- 
livered a  lecture  in  Berlin,  during  the  seventies,  in  which 
he  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  it  is  possible  for  all 
members  of  society  to  have  an  equal  standard  of  educa- 
tion. But  Dr.  Lasker  was  an  anti-Socialist,  a  rigid 
upholder  of  private  property  and  capitalism,  and  the 
question  of  education  under  present-day  conditions  is 
pre-eminently  a  question  of  money.  Therefore  an  equal 
standard  of  education  for  all  is  impossible  at  present. 
Some  may  attain  a  higher  education  even  under  unfavor- 
able circumstances,  by  overcoming  many  difficulties  and 
by  applying  an  amount  of  energy  that  few  possess.  But 
the  masses  can  never  attain  it  so  long  as  they  must  live 
in  a  state  of  social  dependence  and  oppression.* 


*"A  certain  degree  of  culture  and  well-being  is  a  necessary  external 

condition  for  the  development  of  the  philosophic  spirit We, 

therefore,  find  that  only  such  nations  begin  to  philosophize  who  had 
attained  a  considerable  degree  of  well-being  and  culture."  Tenneman, 
quoted  by  Buckle. — "Material  and  intellectual  interests  go  hand  in 
hand.  One  cannot  exist  without  the  other.  There  is  a  connection 
between  them  as  between  body  and  mind.  To  separate  them  means 
destruction.'V.  Thuenen,  "The  Isolated  State."— "The  best  life,  both 
for  the  individual  in  particular  and  for  the  state  in  general,  is  one  in 
which  virtue  is  sufficiently  endowed  with  external  possessions,  that 
participation  in  good  and  virtuous  deeds  becomes  possible.,"  Aris- 
totle, "Politics." 


The  Socialization  of  Society  441 

In  the  new  society  the  conditions  of  existence  will  be 
the  same  for  all.  The  requirements  and  inclinations  will 
differ  and  will  always  continue  to  differ,  since  these,  dif- 
ferences are  rooted  in  the  nature  of  man.  But  each  indi- 
vidual will  be  able  to  develop  under  conditions  equally 
favorable  to  all.  The  uniform  equality,  imputed  to  So- 
cialism,  is  like  so  many  other  imputations,  sheer  non- 
sense. It  would  be  useless,  indeed,  if  Socialism  should 
strive  for  uniform  equality,  for  it  would  then  come  into 
conflict  with  human  nature  itself  and  could  not  hope  to 
see  society  develop  in  accordance  with  its  principles.* 
Indeed,  if  Socialism  should  succeed  in  forcing  society 
into  unnatural  conditions/  these  new  conditions  would 
soon  make  themselves  felt  as  shackles  that  would  be  torn 
asunder,  and  Socialism  would  be  doomed.  Society  de- 
velops by  innate  laws  and  acts  accordingly.* 

A  proper  education  of  the  young  must  be  one  of  the 
chief  tasks  of  the  new  society.  Every  child  that  is  born 


*Mr.  Eugen  Richter,  in  his  "False  Doctrines,"  reiterates  the  worn- 
out  phrase :  the  Socialists  wish  a  coercive  state.  That  there  will 
eventually  be  no  state  ought  to  be  clear  to  the  readers  of  our  book. 
He  assumes  that  socity  would  introduce  a  state  or  a  social  order  that 
would  be  averse  to  its  own  interests..  But  no  new  social  order  or 
state  differing  fundamentally  from  the  preceding  one  could  be  arbi- 
trarely  created..  That  would  be  in  opposition  to  all  the  laws  accord- 
ing to  which  state  and  society  develop.  Mr.  Eugen  Richter  and  those 
who  share  his  views  may  find  consolation  in  this :  if  Socialism  really 
pursues  the  foolish  aims  that  they  impute  to  it,  it  will  die  off  without 
any  effort  on  their  part. — Equally  untenable  is  Richter's  remark  that 
for  a  social  condition  like  the  one  aimed  at  by  Socialists,  men  must 
be  angels.  To  begin  with,  there  are  no  angels,  and  we  do  not  need  any. 
Man  is  influenced  by  circumstances,  but  circumstances  are  also  in- 
fluenced by  man,  and  the  latter  will  be  the  case  more  and  more,  as 
men  become  better  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  society,  which  they 
constitute,  and  apply  their  experiences  consciously  to  their  social  or- 
ganization. .  We  do  not  need  different  human  beings,  but  we  do  need 
more  intelligent  and  rational  human  beings  than  the  majority  are  to- 
day, and  to  make  them  more  intelligent  and  rational,  we  agitate  and 
publish  books  like  this  one. 

*When  we  consider  the  boundless  stupidity  of  our  opponents,  it 
seems  marvelous  that  no  one  has  as  yet  asserted  that  under  Socialism 
all  would  be  given  the  same  quantity  of  food  and  underwear  and 
clothing  of  the  same  size  to  crown  the  system  of  "uniform  equality." 


442  The  Socialist  System  of  Education 

will  be  a  welcome  addition  to  society.  In  the  child  so- 
ciety beholds  the  possibility  of  its  own  continuity,  its 
own  further  development.  Therefore  it  will  also  recog- 
nize the  duty  of  amply  providing  for  the  new  being. 
The  first  object  of  its  care  must,  accordingly,  be  the 
child-bearing  woman,  the  mother.  Comfortable  homes, 
pleasant  environment,  institutions  of  all  kinds  suited  to 
this  stage  of  motherhood,  considerate  care  for  her  and 
for  the  child — these  are  the  first  requirements.  It  is  self- 
understood  that  women  will  be  enabled  to  nurse  their 
children  as  long  as  necessary  and  desirable.  Moleschott, 
Sonderegger,  all  hygienists  and  physicians  are  agreed 
that  no  other  nourishment  can  fully  substitute  the  moth- 
er's milk.  Those  who,  like  Eugen  Richter,  grow  indig- 
nant at  the  suggestion  that  young  mothers  shall  give 
birth  to  their  children  in  a  lying-in-hospital,  where  they 
will  be  surrounded  by  every  care  and  comfort  that  only 
wealthy  persons  can  afford  to-day,  and  that  even  they 
cannot  obtain  as  perfectly  as  it  can  be  provided  in  insti- 
tutions especially  equipped  for  the  purpose,  should  re- 
member that  .at  present  at  least  four-fifths  of  all  chil- 
dren who  come  into  the  world  are  born  under  the  most 
primitive  conditions  that  mock  civilization.  Of  the  re- 
maining one-fifth  of  our  mothers  again  only  a  small  mi- 
nority are  able  to  enjoy  the  care  and  the  comforts  that 
should  be  bestowed  upon  every  woman  in  this  condition.' 
Even  to-day  some  cities  have  splendid  provisions  for 
child-bearing  women,  and  many  women  gladly  make  use 
of  these  institutions  when  they  feel  their  time  approach- 
ing. But  these  institutions  are  so  expensive  that  only 
few  women  are  able  to  make  use  of  them;  others,  of 
course,  are  prevented  by  prejudice.  Here  again  we  have 
an  example  how  the  bourgeois  world  everywhere  con- 
tains the  germs  for  future  transformation. 

Motherhood  among  women  of  wealth  and  fashion  be- 
comes rather  peculiar  by  the  fact  that  these  mothers 
transfer  their  maternal  duties  as  soon  as  possible  to  a 
proletarian  wet-nurse.  It  is  well  known  that  the  Lausitz 
(Spreewald)  is  the  region  that  supplies  the  bourgeois 
women  of  Berlin,  who  do  not  or  cannot  nurse  their  in- 
fants, with  nurses.  "The  breeding  of  nurses"  is  carried 
on  as  a  trade,  since  country  girls  do  not  hesitate  to  be- 


The  Socialization  of  Society  443 

come  pregnant,  because  they  find  it  profitable,  after  the 
birth  of  their  babies,  to  hire  out  as  nurses  to  rich  families 
in  Berlin.  It  is  not  an  unusual  occurrence  that  girls  have 
three  or  four  illegitimate  children  in  order  to  hire  out  as 
nurses,  and  if  they  earn  enough  money  by  this  trade  they 
are  regarded  as  desirable  wives  by  the  young  men  of  the 
Spreewald.  Regarded  from  the  view-point  of  bourgeois 
morality,  such  actions  are  despicable ;  but  regarded  from 
the  view-point  of  the  family  interests  of  the  bourgeoisie, 
they  become  praiseworthy  and  desirable. 

As  soon  as  the  child  will  have  outgrown  infancy  it  will 
join  companions  of  its  age  in  common  play  under  com- 
mon  care  and  direction.  Everything  needful  or  desirable 
for  the  child's  physical  and  mental  development  will  be 
supplied.  (Every  observer  of  children  knows  that  they 
can  be  most  easily  educated  in  the  company  of  other 
children.  This  quality  can  be  successfully  applied  to  the 
system  of  education.*  The  play-halls  and  the  kindergar- 
ten will  be  succeeded  by  a  playful  introduction  into  the 
rudiments  of  knowledge  and  the  various  industrial  tasks. 
They  will  be  succeeded  by  appropriate  mental  and  physi- 
cal work,  combined  with  gymnastic  exercises  and  unre- 
stricted motion  on  the  playground  and  in  the  gymnasium, 
the  skating-rink  and  the  swimming-pool.  There  will  be 
exercises,  drills  and  wrestling-matches  for  both  sexes, 
for  the  aim  will  be  to  bring  up  a  healthy,  hardy  race 
that  will  be  normal  both  physically  and  mentally.  Step 
by  step  the  children  will  be  initiated  into  the  various 
practical  activities,  horticulture,  agriculture,  manufac- 
ture, the  technics  of  the  process  of  production.  Mental 
education  in  the  various  realms  of  knowledge  will  not  be 
neglected. 

The  system  of  education  will  be  purified  and  improved, 
just  like  the  system  of  production.  Many  antiquated, 
superfluous  methods  and  subjects,  which  only  serve  to 
hamper  the  child's  mental  and  physical  development,  will 
be  dropped.  The  knowledge  of  natural  things,  adapted 
to  the  child's  understanding,  will  incite  a  far  greater  de- 


*Fourier  has  accomplished  this  brilliantly,  even  though  in  carrying 
out  his  ideas,  he  approached  the  Utopia.  Bebel,  Chas.  Fourier,  His 
Life  and  His  Theories,  3d  ed.  Stuttgart,  1097. 


444  The  Socialist  System  of  Education 

sire  for  study  than  a  system  of  education  where  one  sub- 
ject conflicts  with  and  contradicts  another;  for  instance, 
when,  on  the  one  hand,  children  receive  religious  instruc- 
tion as  taught  by  the  Bible,  and,  on  the  other,  are  taught 
science  and  natural  history.  The  equipment  of  the 
schools  and  the  methods  and  means  of  education  will  be 
in  keeping  with  the  advanced  stage  of  civilization  of  the 
new  society.  All  the  books  and  objects  required  for  edu- 
cation and  study,  food  and  clothing,  will  be  furnished  by 
society;  no  pupil  will  be  at  a  disadvantage  with  the 
others.*  This  is  another  chapter  that  causes  indignation 
among  our  bourgeois  "men  of  order."**  They  claim  that 
Socialists  seek  to  turn  the  school  into  barracks,  and  to 
deprive  the  parents  of  all  influence  over  their  children. 
Socialists  do  not  aim  at  anything  of  the  sort.  In  future 
society,  parents  will  have  far  more  time  at  their  disposal 
than  the  great  majority  of  parents  have  to-day.  We  need 
but  point  to  the  fact  that  at  present  many  workingmen 
are  employed  ten  hours  daily,  and  even  longer,  and  that 
many  employees  in  the  postal  and  railroad  service,  prison 
and  police  officials.,  etc.,  as  well  as  mechanics,  small  farm- 
ers, merchants,  military  men,  physicians,  etc.,  must  de- 
vote an  equal  length  of  time  to  their  occupations.  In 
future  parents  will  be  able  to  devote  themselves  to  their 
children  in  a  measure  that  is  quite  impossible  to-day. 
Moreover,  the  parents  will  control  the  educational  sys- 
tem and  will  determine  the  measures  and  methods  that 
are  to  be  adopted  and  introduced.  For  then  society  will 
be  thoroughly  democratic.  There  will  be  boards  of  edu- 
cation consisting  of  parents — men  and  women — and  of 
the  educators.  Does  anyone  presume  that  these  will  act 
contrary  to  their  sentiments  and  interests?  That  is  done 


*Condorcet  postulates  in  his  educational  plan:  "Education  must 
be  general,  free  of  charge,  equal  to  all,  physical,  mental,  industrial 
and  political,  and  must  aim  at  true  equality."  Likewise  Rousseau  in 
his  "Political  Economy:*'  "Especially  must  education  be  public. 
equal  and  common,  to  educate  human  beings  and  citizens."  Aristotle 
also  demands:  "Since  the  state  has  but  one  object,  it  must  give  all 
its  members  one  and  the  same  education,  and  the  care  for  them  must 
be  a  public,  not  a  private,  matter." 

**Thus  Eugen  Richter  in  his  "False  Doctrines/' 


The  Socialization  of  Society  445 

in  present-day  society,  where  the  state  carries  out  its 
ideas  of  education  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  most  parents. 
Our  opponents  pretend  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  agree- 
able things  to  parents  to  have  their  children  about  them 
all  day  and  to  be  constantly  occupied  with  their  educa- 
tion. As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  is  not  so.  Every  parent 
knows  that  the  education  of  a  child  is  no  easy  task.  Sev- 
eral children  facilitate  education,  but  they  cause  so  much 
work  and  worry,  especially  to  the  mother,  that  she  is 
thankful  when  they  are  old  enough  to  attend  school,  and 
she  is  relieved  of  their  care  for  a  part  of  the  day.  More- 
over, most  parents  can  educate  their  children  but  insuf- 
ficiently, because  they  have  no  time.  The  fathers  are 
engaged  in  their  trades  or  professions  and  the  mothers  in 
their  household  tasks,  and  sometimes  the  mothers  are 
breadwinners,  also.  But  even  those  parents  who  have 
sufficient  time  usually  lack  the  ability.  How  many 
parents  are  able  to  follow  up  the  mental  development  of 
their  children  at  school  and  to  assist  them?  Mighty  few. 
The  mother,  who,  in  most  cases,  might  be  best  enabled 
to  render  such  assistance,  rarely  has  the  ability,  because 
she  has  not  been  properly  trained  herself.  Moreover,  the 
methods  and  subjects  are  changed  so  often  that  they  are 
foreign  to  most  parents.  For  most  children  the  facilities 
at  home  are  so  insufficient  that  they  have  no  proper  or- 
der, comfort  or  peace  for  doing  their  home-work,  nor  are 
they  helped  by  anyone.  Often  the  home  is  small  and 
overcrowded ;  the  entire  family  are  huddled  together  in 
a  few  small  rooms,  the  furniture  is  scanty,  and  the  child 
wishing  to  study  lacks  every  comfort  and  convenience. 
Not  infrequently  light,  air  and  heat  are  wanting.  The 
books  and  school  supplies  are  either  wanting  entirely  or 
are  of  the  poorest  quality.  Frequently  also  the  little  ones 
are  tortured  by  hunger,  which  destroys  all  inclination  for 
study.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  children  are  put  to 
work  at  all  kinds  of  domestic  and  industrial  occupations 
that  rob  their  childhood  of  its  joy  and  incapacitate  them 
for  mental  work.  Sometimes  children  must  contend 
with  the  opposition  of  narrow-minded  parents,  who  ob- 
ject to  it  that  the  children  devote  time  to  their  studies  or 
to  play.  In  short,  there  are  so  many  obstacles  that  it  is 
to  be  wondered  at  that  the  young  are  so  well  educated. 


446  The  Socialist  System  of  Education. 

This  is  a  proof  of  the  health  of  human  nature  and  of  its 
innate  desire  for  progress  and  perfection. 

Bourgeois  society  itself  recognizes  a  number  of  these 
evils  and  facilitates  the  education  of  the  young  by  intro- 
ducing free  public  instruction  and,  here  and  there,  by  also 
furnishing  the  school  supplies.  As  late  as  the  middle  of 
the  eighties  the  then  Minister  of  Education  of  Saxony, 
designated  both  these  institutions  as  "Socialistic  de- 
mands." In  France,  where  public  education  had  long 
been  neglected  and  then  progressed  all  the  more  rapidly, 
progress  has  advanced  still  further;  at  least,  this  is  the 
case  in  Paris.  Here  the  public-school  meal,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  municipality,  has  been  introduced.  Poor 
children  are  given  the  meals  free  of  charge,  and  the  chil- 
dren of  parents  who  are  in  better  circumstances  must 
pay  a  nominal  sum  into  the  municipal  treasury.  Here 
we  behold  a  communistic  institution  that  has  proved  en- 
tirely satisfactory  to  parents  and  children. 

The  insufficiency  of  ouV  present  educational  system — 
it  often  fails  to  accomplish  the  moderate  aims  it  has  set 
for  itself — becomes  evident  from  the  fact  that  thousands 
upon  thousands  of  children  are  unable  to  get  along  at 
school  on  account  of  insufficient  nourishment. 

Every  winter  there  are  thousands  of  children  in  our 
cities  who  come  to  school  without  breakfast.  Hundreds 
of  thousands  of  others  are  chronically  underfed.  To  all 
these  children  public  feeding  and  clothing  would  be  a 
blessing.  In  a  community  that  will,  by  proper  care  and 
nourishment,  teach  them  what  it  means  to  be  human, 
they  will  not  become  acquainted  with  a  house  of  "cor- 
rection." Bourgeois  society  cannot  deny  the  existence 
of  this  misery,  and  so  compassionate  souls  unite  to  found 
free-lunch  establishments  and  soup-kitchens,  to  perform, 
as  a  charity,  what  ought  to  be  performed  by  society  as  a 
duty.  Recently  a  few  municipalities  have  undertaken  to 
feed  poor  children  at  public  expense.  But  all  this  is  insuf- 
ficient and  must  be  accepted  as  a  charitable  gift,  while  it 
should  be  demanded  as  a  right.* 


*"At  present  20  districts  of  Paris  have  established  school-kitchens, 
where  the  children  are  given  a  noon-day  meal  consisting  of  meat  and 
vegetables.  Only  this  meal  is  obligatory,  but  in  several  districts  the 


The  Socialization  of  Society  447 

It  is  well  that  the  amount  of  home-work  is  being  re- 
duced in  our  schools,  since  the  insufficiency  of  home  fa- 
cilities has  been  recognized.  The  child  of  wealthy  par- 
ents is  at  an  advantage  over  his  poorer  schoolmate,  not 
only  because  he  is  privileged  by  outward  circumstances, 
but  also  because  he  is  helped  at  home  by  a  governess  or 
a  tutor.  On  the  other  hand,  laziness  and  carelessness  are 
fostered  in  the  child  of  wealthy  parents,  because  their 
wealth  makes  study  appear  superfluous  to  him,  and  be- 
cause demoralizing  examples  are  frequently  placed  before 
him  and  he  is  approached  by  many  temptations.  He  who 
learns  daily  and  hourly  that  rank,  position  and  wealth 
count  for  everything,  acquires  a  peculiar  conception  of 
human  duties  and  of  the  institutions  of  state  and  society. 

When  we  examine  this  question  more  closely  we  find 
that  bourgeois  society  has  no  reason  to  become  indignant 
over  the  communistic  methods  of  education  aimed  at  by 
Socialists,  for  it  has  itself  introduced  such  methods  for 
privileged  classes,  but  in  a  distorted  manner.  We  need 
but  point  to  the  cadet  schools,  the  seminaries  and  colleges 
for  the  clergy.  Here  thousands  of  children,  some  of  them 
belonging  to  the  upper  classes,  are  trained  in  the  most 
absurd  and  one-sided  way  and  in  strict  monastic  seclu- 
sion for  certain  occupations.  Many  members  of  the  bet- 
ter classes,  like  physicians,  clergymen,  officials,  manu- 
facturers, laree  farmers,  etc.,  who  live  in  small  towns 
where  there  are  no  hisrher  institutions  of  learning,  send 
their  children  to  boarding-schools  in  large  cities,  and  do 
not  see  them  during  the  entire  year,  except  at  vacation 
time.  It  is  a  contradiction,  then,  when  our  opponents 
decry  a  communistic  system  of  education  and  estrange- 
ment between  parents  and  children,  and  at  the  same  time 
introduce  a  similar  system  of  education,  only  in  a  wrong, 
insufficient  and  distorted  manner,  for  their  own  children. 
Only  too  frequently  are  the  children  of  the  rich  not  edu- 
cated by  their  parents  at  all,  but  by  nurses,  governesses 
and  tutors.  A 'special  chapter  might  be  written  on  this 


children  can  obtain  breakfast  and  afternoon-tea  also."  Helene  Simon 
—School  and  Bread.  Hamburg,  1907.  It  is  due  to  the  initiative  of 
the  Labor  Party  that  a  bill  providing  for  the  feeding  of  school  chil- 
dren in  England  was  turned  over  to  a  committee  in  1906. 


448  The  Socialist  System  of  Education 

subject  that  would  not  cast  a  favorable  light  on  the  fam- 
ily relations  of  these  classes.  Here,  too,  hypocrisy  pre- 
vails and  conditions  are  anything  but  ideal,  both  for  the 
educated  and  the  educators. 

In  accordance  with  the  entirely  altered  system  of  edu- 
cation that  aims  at  the  physical  and  mental  development 
and  culture  of  the  young,  the  teaching  force  must  be  in- 
creased. The  training  of  the  rising  generation  should  be 
provided  for  in  the  same  way  as  the  training  of  the  sol- 
diers is  provided  for  in  the  German  army.  Here  one 
officer  has  charge  of  from  8  to  10  men.  If  in  future  a 
similar  number  of  pupils  will  be  placed  under  the  guid- 
ance of  one  teacher,  the  desired  aims  will  be  attained. 
Introduction  into  mechanical  activities  in  the  splendidly 
equipped  workshops,  and  into  horticultural  and  agricul- 
tural activities,  will  also  constitute  an  important  factor 
in  the  future  education  of  the  young.  Everything  will  be 
taught  with  a  proper  variation  of  occupations  and  with- 
out over-exertion,  in  order  to  educate  harmoniously  de- 
veloped human  beings. 

Education  must  be  the  same  for  both  sexes  and  must 
be  given  in  common  to  both.  Separation  of  the  sexes  is 
justifiable  only  in  cases  where  the  differences  of  sex 
make  it  absolutely  necessary.  In  this  manner  of  educa- 
tion the  United  States  is  far  advanced  over  Europe.  Here 
education  has  been  introduced  from  the  primary  school 
to  the  university.  Not  only  is  education  furnished  free, 
but  the  school  supplies  also,  inclusive  of  the  tools  for 
manual  training,  lessons  in  cooking,  and  articles  used  by 
the  pupils  in  the  study  of  chemistry  and  physics.  Many 
schools  are  equipped  with  gymnasiums,  swimming-pools 
and  playgrounds.  In  the  higher  schools  the  girls  are 
trained  in  gymnastics,  swimming,  rowing,  running,  etc.. 
as  well  as  the  young  men.*. . 

The  Socialistic  system  of  education  will  attain  still 
higher  results.  Properly  regulated  and  ordered  and 
placed  under  able  control,  it  will  continue  until  the  age 
at  which  society  declares  its  young  men  and  women  to 
be  of  age.  Then  the  members  of  both  sexes  will  be  fully 

*Professor   Dr.    Emil    Hausknecht — "The    American    Educational 
System." 


The  Socialization  of  Society  449 

prepared  to  perform  all  duties  and  to  enjoy  all  rights. 
Then  society  will  be  certain  of  having  educated  capable, 
fully  developed  members,  human  beings  to  whom  noth- 
ing human  is  foreign,  who  are  as  familiar  with  their 
own  nature  as  they  are  with  the  nature  and  condition  of 
society,  into  which  they  forthwith  enter,  enjoying  full 
equality.  So  the  excesses  of  our  modern  youth  that  are 
daily  increasing,  and  that  are  a  natural  product  of  our 
disintegrating  social  conditions,  will  disappear.  Unruli- 
ness,  lack  of  self-control,  immorality  and  brutal  sensual- 
ity, which  characterize  the  jnodern  young  men  at  our 
higher  institutions  of  learning,  our  colleges  and  universi- 
ties, and  that  are  the  result  of  domestic  demoralization 
and  unrest  and  of  the  baneful  influences  of  social  life, 
will  not  mark  the  young  men  of  the  future.  The  evil  in- 
fluences of  the  factory  system  and  the  congested  dwell- 
ings, that  cause  young  people  to  be  self-assertive  and 
unbridled  at  an  age  when  human  beings  are  in  the  great- 
est need  of  education  and  of  being  trained  to  exercise 
self-control,  will  also  disappear.  Future  society  will 
avoid  all  these  evils  without  being  obliged  to  resort  to 
compulsory  measures.  The  social  institutions  and  the 
resulting  intellectual  atmosphere  that  will  dominate  so- 
ciety will  simply  make  the  existence  of  such  evils  impossi- 
ble. In  society,  as  in  nature,  diseases  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  organisms  take  place  only  where  a  process  of 
decay  has  set  in. 

None  will  deny  that  our  present  system  of  education 
is  afflicted  with  great  and  serious  defects,  and,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  these  defects  are  more  marked  with  the  higher 
schools  and  institutions  of  learning  than  with  the  lower 
ones.  A  village  school  is  a  model  of  moral  healthfulness 
compared  with  a  college ;  a  sewing  school  for  poor  girls, 
a  model  of  morality  compared  with  a  number  of  fashion- 
able boarding  schools.  It  is  not  hard  to  find  the  reason 
for  this.  Among  the  upper  classes  of  society  every  striv- 
ing after  higher  aims  has  been  smothered;  they  are  de- 
void of  ideals.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  ideals  and  loftier 
aspirations,  the  unbounded  love  of  enjoyment  and  the  in- 
clination to  excesses  are  disseminated,  with  their  result- 
ing physical  and  moral  deterioration.  How  can  young 
persons,  growing  up  in  such  an  atmosphere,  be  different? 


450  The  Socialist  System  of  Education 

A  purely  material  enjoyment  of  life,  carried  to  extremes, 
is  all  they  see  and  know.  Why  should  they  strive  after 
higher  aims  when  the  wealth  of  their  parents  makes  every 
endeavor  appear  superfluous?  The  maximum  education 
of  the  great  majority  of  sons  of  the  German  bourgeoisie, 
consists  in  their  passing  the  examination  for  one  year's 
voluntary  service  in  the  army.  When  they  have  attained 
this  aim,  they  believe  that  they  have  absorbed  all  knowl- 
edge worth  knowing  and  regard  themselves  as  demi-gods. 
If  they  have  obtained  a  reserve-officer's  certificate,  their 
conceit  and  arrogance  knows  no  bounds.  The  influence 
exercised  by  this  generation,  most  of  whose  members 
are  weak  in  character  and  knowledge,  but  strong  in  ser- 
vility, characterize  the  present  period  as  the  "age  of  re- 
serve officers."  Its  peculiarities  are:  Ignorance,  lack  of 
character,  and  a  servile  disposition.  Men  fawn  on  their 
superiors,  and  are  arrogant  and  brutal  to  their  inferiors. 
Most  of  the  daughters  of  the  upper  classes  are  trained 
to  be  society  ladies,  walking  fashion  plates  and  silly  dolls. 
They  rush  from  one  enjoyment  to  another,  until  they 
grow  weary  with  the  boredom  of  their  empty  lives,  and 
fall  victims  to  many  real  and  imaginary  diseases.  When- 
they  grow  old  they  become  religious  fanatics,  spiritualists 
and  faith  healers,  who  turn  up  their  eyes  at  the  wicked- 
ness of  the  world  and  preach  asceticism.  In  regard  to 
the  lower  classes,  efforts  are  being  made  to  further  dimin- 
ish their  standard  of  education.  The  fear  prevails  that 
the  proletarian  might  become  too  wise,  that  he  might 
tire  of  his  subjection  and  rebel  against  his  earthly  gods. 
The  more  ignorant  the  masses  are,  the  more  easily  can 
they  be  governed  and  controlled.  Large  landowners 
from  the  East-Elbe  province  have  repeatedly  declared 
in  their  meetings :  "The  most  stupid  workingman  is  the 
one  most  welcome  to  us."  An  entire  program  is  con- 
tained in  this  one  sentence. 

So  present-day  society  is  as  helpless  and  aimless  in  re- 
gard to  the  question  of  education  as  it  is  in  regard  to  all 
other  questions.  What  methods,  then,  does  it  resort  to? 
It  calls  for  punishment  and  preaches  religion ;  that  is,  it 
preaches  submissiveness  and  contentment  to  those  who 
are  far  too  submissive  and  contented  already;  it  teaches 
abstinence,  where  poverty  compels  people  to  abstain  from 


The  Socialization  of  Society  451 

the  very  necessities  of  life.  They  who  brutally  rebel 
against  this  state  of  affairs  are  placed  in  so-called  "refor- 
matories" that  are  generally  controlled  by  religious  influ- 
ences. That  is  the  limit  of  the  pedagogical  wisdom  of 
our  society.  The  vicious  methods  of  education  applied 
to  neglected  and  demoralized  proletarian  children  become 
manifest  by  the  frequent  cases  of  abuse  and  ill-treatment 
committed  by  the  directors,  overseers,  etc.,  in  these 
"homes"  ( !)  Here  it  has  been  shown  time  and  again  how 
religious  fanatics  of  the  deepest  dye  have,  with  a  per- 
verted pleasure,  ill-treated  poor,  helpless  children  with 
unspeakable  brutality;  and  how  many  of  these  horrors 
mav  never  become  known ! 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 
Literature  and  Art  in  Socialistic  Society. 

When,  in  the  new  society,  the  young  generation  has 
come  of  age,  the  further  education  will  be  every  person's 
own  concern.  Every  one  will  do  whatever  his  inclina- 
tions and  talents  prompt  him  to  do.  Some  will  devote, 
themselves  to  one  or  another  branch  of  the  natural  sci- 
ences that  will  be  more  and  more  fully  developed :  An- 
thropology, zoology,  botany,  mineralogy,  geology,  phy- 
sics, chemistry,  the  prehistoric  sciences,  etc.  Others  will 
take  up  history,  etymology,  or  the  history  of  art.  Some 
will  become  musicians,  others  artists,  sculptors,  actors. 
In  the  future  there  will  be  neither  "corporate"  artists 
and  scientists  nor  corporate  mechanics.  .Thousands  of 
brilliant  talents  that  have  so  far  been  suppressed  will 
develop  and  will  prove  their  knowledge  and  ability 
wherever  an  opportunity  presents  itself.  There  will  no 
longer  be  professional  musicians,  artists,  actors  and  sci- 
entists, but  these  will  be  all  the  more  inspired  by  enthu- 
siasm, talent  and  genius.  Iheir  achievements  are  likely 
to  excel  present-day  achievements  on  these  fields  as 
vastly  as  the  industrial,  technical,  and  agricultural 
achievements  of  future  society  will  excel  those  of  modern 
society.  An  era  of  art  and  science  will  arise  such  as  the 


452  Literature  and  Art  in  Socialistic  Society 

world  has  never  known,  and  the  achievements  that  will 
have  created  it  will  be  correspondingly  great. 

The  coming  renaissance  of  art  that  will  result  from 
the  introduction  of  conditions  more  wrorthy  of  human 
beings,  has  been  foreseen  by  no  less  a  man  than  Richard 
Wagner,  who  expressed  himself  on  this  subject  as  early 
as  1850,  in  his  book  on  "Art  and  Revolution."  This  book 
is  especially  noteworthy  because  it  was  published  right 
after  a  revolution  that  had  been  beaten  down  and  in 
which  Wagner  himself  participated.  In  this  book,  Wag- 
ner predicts  what  the  future  will  bring.  He  directly 
turns  to  the  working  class,  who  must  help  the  artists  to 
establish  true  art.  Among  other  things,  he  says :  "When, 
for  the  free  human  beings  of  the  future,  it  will  no  longer 
be  the  purpose  of  life  to  obtain  the  means  of  subsistence, 
but,  as  a  result  of  a  new  belief,  or  rather,  knowledge, 
they  will  be  certain  of  obtaining  the  means  of  subsist- 
ence in  return  for  an  appropriate  natural  activity,  when, 
in  short,  industry  will  no  longer  be  our  mistress,  but  our 
servant,  the  true  purpose  of  life  will  become  the  enjoy- 
ment of  life,  and  by  education  we  will  endeavor  to  make 
our  children  capable  of  its  real  enjoyment.  An  educa- 
tion founded  on  the  exercise  of  strength  and  the  care  of 
physical  beauty,  will,  owing  to  the  love  for  the  child  and 
the  joy  at  the  development  of  its  beauty,  become  a  purely 
artistic  one,  and  every  human  being  will,  in  some  way, 
be  a  true  artist.  The  diversity  of  natural  inclinations 
will  develop  the  most  manifold  tendencies  in  an  un- 
thought  of  wealth."  This  is  a  thoroughly  Socialistic  con- 
ception and  coincides  with  our  description. 

In  the  future,  social  life  will  become  ever  more  public. 
Its  trend  of  development  can  be  best  judged  by  the  com- 
pletely altered  position  of  woman.  Domestic  life  will  be 
limited  to  what  is  absolutely  essential,  while  the  desire 
for  sociability  will  be  given  the  widest  field.  Large  meet- 
ing halls  for  lectures  and  the  discussion  of  public  affairs — 
that  will  in  future  be  decided  upon  by  the  people  at 
large  —  dining  -  nails,  reading  -  rooms,  libraries,  play- 
grounds, concerts,  theaters,  museums,  gymnasiums,  pub- 
lic baths,  parks  and  promenades,  institutions  of  education 
and  learning,  laboratories,  etc.,  all  splendidly  equipped, 
will  afford  ample  opportunity  for  entertainment  and  so- 


The  Socialization  of  Society  453 

ciability,  and  will  enable  science  and  art  to  attain  the 
highest  degree  of  development.  In  the  same  way  the  in- 
stitutions for  the  care  of  the  sick,  the  infirm  and  the  aged 
will  meet  the  highest  demands. 

How  petty  will  our  present  age  seem  in  comparison ! 
This  fawning  for  favors  and  good-will  from  above,  this 
servile  disposition,  this  envious  struggle  against  one.  an- 
other for  the  best  place,  carried  on  by  the  lowest  and 
most  spiteful  means,  and,  at  the  same  time,  suppresison 
of  one's  true  convictions,  concealing  of  good  qualities 
that  might  displease  those  whose  favor  it  sought,  emascu- 
lation of  character,  the  feigning  of  opinions  and  feelings 
that  one  does  not  possess — all  these  qualities  that  may 
be  termed  cowardice  and  hypocrisy,  are  daily  becoming 
more  pronounced.  -  Qualities  that  are  truly  ennobling, 
self-confidence,  independence  and  incorruptibility  of  one's 
opinions,  are  usually  turned  into  faults  and  short-com- 
ings under  present-day  conditions.  Persons  who  cannot 
suppress  these  good  qualities  are  often  ruined  by  them. 
Many  are  so  accustomed  to  their  degradation  that  they 
do  not  even  perceive  it.  The  dog  regards  it  as  a  matter 
of  course  that  he  has  a  master  who  is  sometimes  ill-tem- 
pered and  whips  him. 

The  altered  conditions  of  social  life  will  also  thor- 
oughly revolutionize  our  literature.  The  theological 
literature,  which  furnishes  the  largest  number  of  works 
in  the  annual  catalogues  of  literary  productions,  will  be 
eliminated,  together  with  the  judicial  literature.  For  the 
one  there  will  be  no  more  interest,  and  for  the  other  no 
need.  The  products  that  have  reference  to  the  struggles 
over  institutions  of  the  state,  will  also  be  eliminated,  be- 
cause these  institutions  will  no  longer  exist.  They  will 
assume  the  character  of  historical  studies.  The  numer- 
ous literary  products  of  a  highly  superficial  nature,  which 
are  just  a  proof  of  bad  taste  and  sometimes  are  made 
possible  only  by  a  sacrifice  of  the  author's  pride,  will  be 
dropped.  Even  from  the  the  present  point  of  view,  we 
may  say  that  four-fifths  of  all  literary  products  might 
disappear  from  the  market  without  a  loss  to  one  single  in- 
terest of  civilization,  so  great  is  the  mass  of  superficial 
or  harmful  products  and  obvious  trash  on  the  field  of 
literature. 


454          Literature  and  Art  in  Socialistic  Society 

Fiction  and  the  press  will  be  affected  in  an  equal  meas- 
ure. There  is  nothing  more  superficial  and  insipid  than 
the  greater  part  of  our  journalistic  literature.  If  our 
standard  of  civilization  were  to  be  estimated  by  the  con- 
tents of  our  newspapers,  it  would  be  deemed  a  low  one, 
indeed.  People  and  conditions  are  judged  by  the  opin- 
ions of  past  centuries  that  have  long  since  been  proven 
untenable  by  science.  A  great  many  of  our  journalists 
are  persons  who,  as  Bismarck  correctly  said,  have  missed 
their  vocation,  but  whose  standard  of  education  and  sal- 
ary are  in  keeping  with  the  bourgeois  interest  in  their 
trade.  Moreover,  the  newspapers,  as  well  as  a  majority 
of  the  magazines,  have  a  very  unworthy  mission  in  their 
advertising  sections,  and  their  reports  of  the  money-mar- 
ket serve  the  same  interests  on  a  different  field.  1  ne  ma- 
terial interest  of  the  publishers  determines  the  contents. 
Modern  fiction  is,  on  an  average,  not  much  better  than 
journalistic  literature.  It  cultivates  the  excesses  of  sex- 
ual relations.  It  either  renders  homage  to  superficial  en- 
lightenment, or  to  antiquated  prejudice  and  superstition. 
The  purpose  is  to  let  the  bourgeois  world  appear  as  the 
best  of  worlds,  regardless  of  the  numerous  short-comings 
that  are,  to  some  extent,  admitted. 

On  this  wide  and  important  realm  future  society  will 
have  to  clear  up  thoroughly.  Science,  truth,  beauty  and 
the  conflict  of  opinions  as  to  what  is  best,  will  alone  con- 
trol it.  Every  person  of  talent  and  ability  will  be  en- 
abled to  participate.  The  writer  will  no  longer  depend 
upon  the  favor  of  the  publisher,  financial  interest  or 
prejudice;  he  will  depend  upon  the  judgment  of  impar- 
tial experts  whom  he  will  help  to  select  and  against 
whose  decisions  he  may  appeal  to  the  community — all  of 
which  is  impossible  to-day  with  a  publisher  or  the  editor 
of  a  newspaper,  who  only  take  their  private  interest  into 
consideration.  The  naive  conception,  that  a  difference  of 
opinions  would  be  suppressed  in  a  Socialistic  community, 
can  be  maintained  only  by  those  who  consider  the  bour- 
geois world  a  perfect  state  of  society,  and,  out  of  hostil- 
ity to  Socialism,  seek  to  slander  and  belittle  it.  A  so- 
ciety founded  upon  perfect,  democratic  equality,  will  bear 
no  oppression.  Only  perfect  freedom  of  thought  makes 
uninterrupted  progress  possible,  which  is  the  principle  of 


The  Socialization  of  Society  455 

life  for  society.  It  is  a  gross  misrepresentation  to  depict 
bourgeois  society  as  a  defender  of  real  freedom  of 
thought.  Parties  that  represent  the  interests  of  the  rul- 
ing classes  will  only  publish  that  in  the  press  which  is 
not  adverse  to  class  interests,  and  woe  to  him  who  would 
do  otherwise !  His  social  ruin  is  certain,  as  every  one 
knows  who  is  acquainted  with  conditions.  The  writers 
know  how  the  publishers  treat  literary  works  that  do  not 
suit  them.  Finally,  the  press  and  criminal  laws  betray 
what  spirit  dominates  the  ruling  classes.  True  freedom 
of  thought  appears  to  them  as  the  most  dangerous  of  all 
evils. 


CHAPTER   XXVII. 
Free  Development  of  Individuality. 

i. — Freedom  from  Care. 

Man  should  be  given  an  opportunity  for  perfect  devel- 
opment. That  is  the  purpose  of  human  association.  So 
he  must  not  remain  tied  down  to  the  spot  where  he  has 
been  placed  by  the  chance  of  birth.  One  should  become 
acquainted  with  the  world  and  people  not  only  through 
books  and  newspapers,  but  also  by  personal  observation 
and  practical  experience.  So  future  society  must  enable 
all  to  do  what  many  are  able  to  do  even  in  present-day 
society,  though  at  present  the  force  of  want  usually 
forms  the  motive.  The  desire  for  change  in  all  human 
relations  is  deeply  rooted  in  human  nature.  This  is  due? 
to  the  impulse  of  seeking  perfection  that  is  innate  in; 
every  living  being.  The  plant  that  is  placed  in  a  dark 
room  extends  and  stretches,  as  if  conscious  of  the  ray  of 
light  that  penetrates  some  crevice.  It  is  the  same  with 
man.  An  instinct,  that  is  innate  in  man,  must  find 
rational  satisfaction.  The  desire  for  change  will  not  be 
opposed  by  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the  new  society; 
the  satisfaction  of  this  desire  will,  on  the  contrary,  be- 
come possible  to  all.  The  highly  developed  system  of 
communication  will  make  it  easy,  and  the  international 
relations  will  demand  it.  In  the  future  far  more  persons 


456  Free  Development  of  Individuality 

will  travel  through  the  world,  for  the  most  varied  pur- 
poses, than  heretofore. 

Society  will  require  an  ample  supply  of  all  the  necessi- 
ties of  life  to  meet  all  demands.  Society  will  therefore 
regulate  its  hours  of  work  according  to  the  needs.  It 
will  lengthen  or  shorten  them,  as  the  demands  or  the  sea- 
son of  the  year  make  this  appear  desirable.  During  one 
season  it  will  devote  more  time  to  agriculture,  and  dur- 
ing another  it  will  devote  more  time  to  industry  and  to 
artistic  crafts.  It  will  direct  the  labor  forces  as  the  needs 
may  let  it  appear  desirable.  By  combining  various  labor 
forces  with  the  most  perfect  technical  appliances,  it  will 
be  able  to  carry  out  large  undertakings  playfully,  that 
seem  practically  impossible  to-day. 

As  society  provides  for  the  young,  so  also  will  it  pro- 
vide for  the  old,  the  sick  and  invalid.  If  any  one  has, 
by  some  misfortune,  become  incapacitated  for  work,  so- 
ciety will  provide  for  him.  This  will  not  be  an  act  of 
charity,  but  a  simple  performance  of  duty.  The  assist- 
ance will  not  be  a  morsel  graciously  given,  but  support 
and  care  provided  with  every  possible  consideration,  be- 
stowed as  a  matter  of  course  upon  him  who  performed 
his  duty  toward  societv  as  long  as  he  was  able  to  do  so. 
The  evening  of  life  will  be  made  beautiful  by  all  that  so- 
ciety has  to  offer.  For  every  one  will  hope  himself  to 
receive  some  day  what  he  bestows  upon  other  aged  per- 
sons. No  old  person  wilj  be  harassed  by  the  thought 
that  others  are  awaiting  their  death  to  inherit  their  pos- 
sessions. They  are  also  freed  from  the  terror  of  being 
cast  aside  like  a  squeezed  lemon  when  they  have  be- 
come old  and  helpless.  They  must  neither  depend  on 
the  kindness  and  support  of  their  children,  nor  on  pub- 
lic charity.*  How  unfortunate  is  the  position  of  most 


*"The  person  who  has  worked  hard  and  honestly  until  old  age, 
should  not  depend  upon  the  benevolence  of  his  children  or  that  of 
bourgeois  society.  An  independent,  easy  and  care-free  old  age  is  the 
natural  reward  for  continuous  exertions  during  the  days  of  health 
and  strength."  v.  Thuenen — The  Isolated  State.  But  how  are  the 
aged  treated  in  bourgeois  socitey?  Millions  look  forward  with  dread 
to  the  time  when  they  will  be  cast  out  into  the  street  because  they 
have  grown  old ;  and  our  industrial  system  makes  people  age  before 
their  time.  The  much  boasted  old  age  and  invalid  pension  in  the 


The  Socialization  of  Society  457 

parents  who  in  old  age  must  depend  upon  the  support  of 
their  children,  is  a  well-known  fact.  And  how  demoraliz- 
ing to  children  and  to  relatives  is  the  hope  of  inheriting! 
What  degrading  passions  are  aroused  and  how  many 
crimes  are  caused  thereby — murder,  suppression,  legacy- 
hunting,  perjury  and  blackmailing! 

The  moral  and  physical  condition  of  society,  the  nature 
of  its  work,  homes,  food,  dress,  its  social  life,  all  will  tend 
to  prevent  accidents,  sickness  and  debility.  Dying  a 
natural  death,  the  normal  decline  of  the  vigor  of  life,  will 
become  the  rule  more  and  more.  The  conviction  that 
heaven  is  upon  earth  and  that  death  means  the  end,  will 
cause  people  to  lead  a  rational  life.  He  who  enjoys 
longest,  enjoys  most.  The  clergy  themselves,  who  pre- 
pare people  for  "the  hereafter,"  know  how  to  value  a 
long  life.  Their  care-free  existence  enables  them  to  at- 
tain the  highest  average  age. 

2. — Changes  in  the  Methods  of  Nutrition. 

Food  and  drink  are  prime  necessities  of  life.  People 
who  believe  in  the  so-called  "natural  manner  of  living" 
frequently  ask  why  Socialists  remain  indifferent  to  vege- 
tarianism. Everyone  lives  as  best  he  may.  Vegetarian- 
ism, that  is,  the  doctrine  of  an  exclusive  vegetable  diet, 
found  its  chief  supporters  among  the  persons  who  are 
so  comfortably  situated  that  they  are  able  to  choose 
between  a  vegetable  and  an  animal  diet.  But  the  great 
majority  of  persons  have  no  choice.  They  must  live  ac- 
cording to  their  means,  and  the  scantiness  of  their  means 
compels  them  to  live  on  a  vegetable  diet  almost  exclu- 
sively and  often  on  one  of  the  poorest  quality.  For  the 
German  laboring  population  in  Silesia,  Saxony,  Thurin- 
gia,  etc.,  the  potato  is  the  principal  article  of  food;  even 
bread  comes  only  second.  Meat  only  rarely  appears  on 
their  tables,  and  then  it  is  meat  of  the  poorest  quality. 
The  greater  part  of  the  rural  population,  although  they 
raise  cattle,  also  rarely  eat  meat;  for  they  must  sell  the 

German  Empire  is  only  a  very  scanty  substitute ;  even  its  most  ardent 
supporters  admit  that.  The  assistance  rendered  is  still  much  more 
insufficient  than  the  pensions  allowed  by  the  municipalities  to  the 
majority  of  their  pensioned  officials. 


458  Free  Development  of  Individuality 

cattle,  and,  with  the  money  obtained,  must  satisfy  other 
needs.  To  these  numerous  people  who  are  obliged  to 
live  as  vegetarians,  a  solid  beefsteak  or  a  good  leg  of 
mutton  would  mean  a  decided  improvement  in  their 
nourishment.*  If  vegetarianism  opposes  the  overeating 
of  an  animal  diet,  it  is  right.  If  it  combats  the  partaking 
of  meat  as  harmful  and  detrimental,  mainly  for  sentimen- 
tal reasons,  it  is  wrong;  when  it  is  claimed,  for  instance, 
that  natural  feelings  forbid  to  kill  an  animal  and  to  par- 
take of  a  "corpse."  The  desire  to  live  in  peace  compels 
us  to  wage  war  upon  and  destroy  a  great  many  living 
creatures,  such  as  vermin,  and,  in  order  not  to  be  de- 
voured ourselves,  we  must  kill  and  exterminate  wild 
beasts.  If  we  could  allow  "the  good  friends  of  man," 
the  domestic  animals,  to  live  undisturbed,  these  "good 
friends"  would  multiply  to  such  a  degree  that  they 
would  "eat"  us  by  robbing  us  of  nourishment.  The  as- 
sertion that  vegetable  diet  creates  a  gentle  disposition  is 
false,  too.  Even  in  the  gentle,  vegetarian  Hindoos  the 
"beast"  was  aroused,  when  the  severity  of  the  English 
drove  them  to  rebellion.  The  nutritive  value  of  an  article 
of  food  .cannot  be  estimated  only  by  the  amount  of  albu- 
men that  it  contains.  It  must  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion how  large  a  quantity  of  the  albumen  consumed  re- 

*  That  this  is  the  fact  has  been  proven  by  experiments  in  nutrition, 
recently  reported  by  two  Italian  scientists.  The  metabolic  assimila- 
tion of  a  population  that  has  long  since  lived  on  a  vegetable  diet  ex- 
clusively, was  examined.  Such  an  agricultural  population,  living  in 
wretched  economic  conditions,  is  met  with  in  southern  Italy  in  the 
Abruzzi.  Their  nourishment  consists  of  corn,  vegetables  and  olive 
oil.  They  do  not  partake  of  milk,  cheese  or  eggs.  Meat  is  brought  to 
their  tables  only  three  or  four  times  a  year.  By  way  of  experiment 
meat  was  added  to  their  diet.  During  15  days  every  person  was  given 
100  grammes  of  meat  and  during  the  following  is^days  200  grammes. 
It  was  found  that  the  process  of  assimilation  became  much  more 
favorable.  The  formerly  great  loss  of  nutritious  matter  was  con- 
siderably diminished.  Not  only  was  the  newly  added  animal  albumen 
perfectly  assimilated,  but  also  the  vegetable  food  that  was  consumed 
together  with  the  meat  had  been  assimilated  far  better.  This  was  all 
the  more  remarkable  because  this  particular  kind  of  vegetable  diet, 
which  consisted  almost  exclusively  of  corn,  was  hard  to  digest,  as  it 
contains  much  cellular  tissue.  Dr.  A.  Lipschuetz,  M.  D. — "A  Reform 
in  our  Nutrition?" 


The  Socialization  of  Society  459 

mains  undigested.  Considered  from  this  view-point,  we 
find,  for  instance,  meat  and  rice,  or  potatoes,  as  2.5  to 
20  or  22.  In  other  words,  of  100  grammes  of  albumen 
consumed  with  meat,  2.5  grammes  will  pass  out  of  the 
system  undigested.  Of  100  grammes  consumed  with  rice 
or  potatoes,  respectively,  20  and  22  grammes  will  pass 
out.  The  famous  Russian  physiologist,  Pavlow,  and  his 
scholars  have  shown  that,  with  the  digestion  of  bread, 
there  is  much  more  ferment  than  with  the  digestion  of 
meat.  Pawlow  has  furthermore  shown  that  the  gastric 
juices  produced  by  the  pancreas  glands  are  of  two  kinds. 
They  are  produced  through  stimulation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  by  the  food  itself,  and  are  also  produced  as 
"appetite  juices"  by  stimulation  of  the  senses.  The 
quantity  of  our  appetite  juice  depends  upon  our  psychic 
condition  for  the  time  being;  for  instance,  on  hunger, 
grief,  annoyance,  joy,  etc.,  and  it  also  depends  upon  the 
nature  of  the  food.  But  the  importance  of  the  appetite 
juice  differs  with  different  articles  of  food.  Some  foods, 
as,  for  instance,  bread,  boiled  albumen,  as  contained  in 
eggs,  or  pure  starch,  cannot  be  digested  at  all,  unless 
the  digestion  is  introduced  by  the  appetite  juice,  as  has 
been  directly  proved  by  experiments.  They  can  only  be 
digested  when  they  are  eaten  with  an  appetite,  or  to- 
gether with  other  food.  But  meat,  as  Pawlow  has  shown, 
can  be  partly  digested  without  appetite  juice,  although, 
with  the  aid  of  appetite  juice,  meat  is  digested  much 
more  rapidly  (five  times  as  fast).  "We  must  therefore 
take  factors  into  consideration  that  depend  upon  the  psy- 
chology of  man.  Here  a  connection  has  been  estab- 
lished between  facts  of  the  physiology  of  nutrition  and 
social  conditions.  The  modern  residents  of  large  cities, 
especially  the  masses  of  the  working  class,  live  under  so- 
cial conditions  that  are  bound  to  destroy  their  normal  ap- 
petite. Work  in  the  squalid  factory,  the  constant  worry 
over  their  daily  bread,  absence  of  mental  repose  and 
pleasant  impressions,  complete  physical  exhaustion,  all 
these  are  factors  that  are  destructive  of  appetite.  In  this 
psychological  condition  we  are  unable  to  furnish  the  ap- 
petite juice  required  for  the  digestion  of  vegetable  food. 
But  in  meat  we  possess  an  article  of  food  that— if  we 
may  thus  express  it — provides  for  its  own  digestion.  A 


460  Free  Development  of  Individuality 

considerable  quantity  of  meat  can  be  digested  without 
appetite;  it  also  acts  as  a  stimulant  and  a  creator  of  ap- 
petite. So  meat  aids  the  digestion  of  vegetables  con- 
sumed at  the  same  time,  and  thereby  insures  a  better 
assimilation  of  the  consumed  matter.  This  appears  to 
be  the  great  advantage  of  an  animal  diet  to  modern 
man."* 

Sonderegger  hits  the  nail  on  the  head  when  he  says: 
"There  is  no  order  of  rank  among  articles  of  food,  but 
there  is  an  immutable  law  regarding  the  combination  of 
their  nutritive  qualities."  It  is  true  that  no  one  can  live 
on  an  animal  diet  exclusively,  while  one  can  live  on  a 
vegetable  diet,  provided  that  the  diet  can  be  properly  se- 
lected. On  the  other  hand,  no  one  would  care  to  content 
himself  with  one  specific  kind  of  vegetable  food,  no  mat- 
ter how  nutritive  it  might  be.  Thus,  beans,  peas,  lentils, 
in  one  word,  the  leguminosre,  are  the  most  nutritive  of  all 
articles  of  food.  But  to  live  on  them  exclusively — which 
is  said  to  be  possible — would  be  a  torture.  Karl  Marx 
mentions,  in  his  first  volume  of  ''Capital,"  that  the  mine- 
owners  in  Chili  compel  their  workingmen  to  eat  beans  all 
the  year  round,  because  this  nourishment  gives  them  an 
unusual  amount  of  strength  and  enables  them  to  carry 
loads  as  no  other  nourishment  will.  The  workingmen  re- 
fuse the  beans,  notwithstanding  their  nutritive  value,  but 
are  compelled  to  content  themselves  with  this  diet.  Un- 
der no  circumstances  does  the  happiness  and  welfare  of 
man  depend  upon  a  definite  kind  of  food,  as  the  fanatics 
among  vegetarians  claim.  Climate,  social  conditions, 
custom  and  personal  taste  are  the  determining  factors.** 


*A.  Lipschuetz. 

**"The  popular  nutrition  is  almost  exclusively  a  vegetable  diet  with 
a  slight  addition  of  animal  substances.  Peasants  eat  generally  very 
little  meat.  No  one  will  deny  that  one  can  live  in  this  manner.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  an  exclusive  vegetable  diet,  which  can  also  be  given 
greater  diversity  by  proper  selection,  is  quite  compatible  with  good 
health.  But  far  different  needs  are  becoming  manifest  in  every  con- 
tinent. The  popular  simple  manner  of  nutrition  is  being  forsaken 
for  more  tasty  foods  and  combinations,  and  for  this  meat  is  essential, 
because  it  can  be  employed  in  many  different  ways.  Everywhere  we 
perceive  this  tendency.  Like  the  old,  simple  customs  and  national 
customs  disappear,  so  also  are  the  old  forms  of  nutrition  being  set 


The  Socialization  of  Society  461 

In  the  measue  in  which  civilization  advances,  exclusive 
meat  diet,  as  is  met  with  among  hunting  and  pastoral 
tribes,  is  partly  replaced  by  vegetable  diet.  The  variety 
of  cultivated  plants  is  a  proof  of  higher  civilization.  On 
a  given  area,  moreover,  much  more  nourishment  can  be 
obtained  by  the  cultivation  of  plants  than  by  the  breed- 
ing of  cattle.  This  development  gradually  causes  the 
vegetable  diet  to  predominate.  The  supply  of  meat  from 
distant  countries,  especially  South  America  and  Austra- 
lia, will  be  exhausted  in  a  few  decades.  On  the  other 
hand,  animals  are  raised  not  only  for  their  flesh,  but  also 
for  wool,  hair,  bristles,  hides,  milk,  eggs,  etc.  Many  in- 
dustries and  a  number  of  human  needs  depend  upon  it. 
Much  offal  in  industry  and  housekeeping  could  not  be 
more  usefully  employed  than  by  cattle  raising.  In  the 
future  the  ocean,  too,  will  have  to  yield  to  man  its  wealth 
of  animal  food  in  a  larger  measure.  Then  it  will  not  oc- 
cur that  loads  of  fish  will  be  used  as  manure,  owing  to  the 
high  cost  of  transportation,  or  canning,  that  prevent  their 
sale,  as  is  frequently  the  case  at  present.  It  is  quite 
probable  that  the  abolition  of  the  extremes  between  city 
and  country,  when  work  in  closed  shops  will  be  com- 
bined with  work  in  the  open  fields,  will  again  lead  to  a 
preponderance  of  the  vegetable  diet.  Of  course  the  ab- 
sence of  stimulants  in  a  vegetable  diet  can  be  equalized 
by  a  proper  and  rational  preparation  of  the  food  with 
the  aid  of  spice.  But  that  future  society  should  live  on 
vegetables  exclusively  is. neither  probable  nor  necessary. 

3. — The  Communistic  Kitchen. 

In  the  matter  of  nutrition  quality  is  far  more  important 
than  quantity.  Much  food  is  not  beneficial  if  the  food  is 
not  good.  But  quality  may  be  greatly  improved  by  the' 
manner  in  which  food  is  prepared.  The  preparation  of 

aside.  This  transformation  can  be  observed  in  all  countries.  Even 
in  Japan  where  a  peculiar  national  diet  prevailed  until  recently,  Eu- 
ropean fare  has  displaced  the  old  regime.  In  the  Japanese  navy  the 
new  diet  was  introduced  because  it  proved  to  be  more  beneficial  to 
the  men  in  service.  The  endeavor  to  establish  this  concentrated,  rich 
and  tasty  fare  is  a  general  one."  M.  Rubner — The  Question  of  Pub- 
lic Nutrition, 


462  Free  Development  of  Individuality 

food  should  be  conducted  as  scientifically  as  any  other 
human  activity,  in  order  to  be  as  advantageous  as  possi- 
ble. This  requires  knowledge  and  proper  equipment. 
That  our  women  who  are  chiefly  engaged  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  food  do  not  possess  this  knowledge  and  cannot 
possess  it,  requires  no  further  proof.  The  equipment  of 
the  large  kitchen  has  already  attained  a  degree  of  per- 
fection that  the  best  equipped  domestic  kitchen  cannot 
come  up  to.  The  kitchen  equipped  with  electricity  for 
lighting  and  heating  is  the  ideal  one.  No  more  smoke, 
heat,  or  disagreeable  odors!  The  kitchen  resembles  a 
workshop  furnished  with  all  kinds  of  technical  and  me- 
chanical appliances  that  quickly  perform  the  hardest  and 
most  disagreeable  tasks.  Here  we  see  potato  and  fruit- 
paring  machines,  apparatus  for  removing  kernels,  meat- 
choppers, mills  for  grinding  coffee  and  spice,  ice-chop- 
pers, corkscrews,  bread-cutters,  and  a  hundred  other  ma- 
chines and  appliances,  all  run  by  electricity,  that  enable 
a  comparatively  small  number  of  persons,  without  ex- 
cessive labor,  to  prepare  a  meal  for  hundreds  of  guests. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  equipments  for  house-cleaning 
and  for  washing  the  dishes. 

To  millions  of  women  the  private  kitchen  is  an  institu- 
tion that  is  extravagant  in  its  methods,  entailing  endless 
drudgery  and  waste  of  time,  robbing  them  of  their  health 
and  good  spirits,  and  an  object  of  daily  worry,  especially 
when  the  means  are  scanty,  as  is  the  case  with  most 
families.  The  abolition  of  the  private  kitchen  will  come 
as  a  liberation  to  countless  women.  The  private  kitchen 
is  as  antiquated  an  institution  as  the  workshop  of  the 
small  mechanic.  Both  represent  a  useless  and  needless 
waste  of  time  labor  and  material. 

The  nutritive  value  of  food  is  heightened  by  its  easier 
assimilation ;  this  is  a  decisive  factor.*  Only  the  new  so- 
ciety will  be  able  to  provide  a  rational  nutrition  for  all. 
Cato  sets  forth  with  especial  praise  that  in  ancient  Rome, 
up  to  the  sixteenth  century  of  the  city  (200  B.  C.),  there 
were  men  versed  in  the  art  of  healing,  but  that  they 
found  little  occasion  to  practice  their  art.  The  Romans 


*The  power  of    assimilation  of    food  by  each  individual  is  the 
standard.  Niemeyer:    Hygiene. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  463 

led  such  simple  and  temperate  lives  that  sickness  was 
rare  among  them,  and  most  people  died  from  old  age. 
Only  when  extravagance  and  idleness,  in  short,  a  disso- 
lute life,  set  in,  on  the  one  hand,  and  poverty  and  exces- 
sive work  on  the  other,  matters  were  completely  changed. 
In  the  future,  extravagance,  idleness  and  dissoluteness 
will  be  impossible,  but  misery,  want  and  privation  will  be 
impossible  likewise.  There  is  an  abundance  for  all. 
Heinrich  Heine  has  sung  ere  now : 

Sufficient  grain  is  grown  on  earth 
With  bread  all  beings  to  provide, 
Roses  and  myrtles,  beauty,  mirth, 
And  sugar-peas  are  there  beside. 

Yes,  sugar- peas  for  every  one ! 
When  want  no  longer  harrows, 
Then    heaven    gladly    shall    we    leave 
To  angels  and  to  sparrows.* 

"He  who  eats  little  lives  well"  (that  is,  long),  said 
the  Italian  Cornaro,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  as  quoted 
by  Niemeyer.  Finally,  chemistry,  too,  will  be  active  in 
the  future  to  produce  new  and  improved  articles  of  food. 
To-day  this  science  is  frequently  abused  to  adulterate 
food;  but  it  is  clear  that  a  chemically  prepared  article 
of  food  that  has  all  the  qualities  of  a  natural  product, 
serves  the  same  purpose.  The  manner  in  which  food 
is  obtained  is  a  matter  of  secondary  importance,  pro- 
vided that  it  answers  all  requirements. 

4. — Transformation  of  Domestic  Life. 

As  the  kitchen,  so  our  entire  domestic  life  will  be 
revolutionized,  and  countless  tasks  that  must  be  per- 
formed to-day  will  become  superfluous.  As  the  central 
kitchen  will  do  away  with  the  private  kitchen,  so  central 
heating  and  electric  lighting  plants  will  do  away  with  all 
the  trouble  connected  with  stoves  and  lamps.  Warm  and 
cold  water  supply  will  enable  all  to  enjoy  daily  baths. 
Central  laundries  and  drying-rooms  will  assume  the 
washing  and  drying  of  clothes ;  central  cleaning  estab- 
lishments, the  cleaning  of  carpets  and  clothes.  In  Chi- 


*Heinrich  Heine  :  Germany.    A  Winter's  Tale. 


464  Free  Development  of  Individuality 

cago  carpet-cleaning  machines  were  exhibited  that 
cleaned  carpets  in  an  incredibly  short  time,  calling  forth 
the  wonder  and  admiration  of  the  ladies  who  visited  the 
exposition.  The  electric  door  opens  at  a  slight  pressure 
of  the  finger  and  shuts  off  itself.  lElectric  contrivances 
carry  letters  and  newspapers  to  every  floor  of  the  houses, 
and  electric  elevators  save  one  the  trouble  of  climbing 
stairs.  The  interior  furnishing  of  the  houses,  the  cov- 
erings of  walls,  floors,  furniture,  etc.,  will  be  so  arranged 
as  to  make  house-cleaning  easy  and  to  avoid  the  gather- 
ing of  dust  and  germs.  Garbage  and  all  kinds  of  offal 
will  be  carried  out  of  the  houses  by  waste-pipes  like  the 
water  that  has  been  used.  In  the  United  States,  and  in 
some  European  cities,  for  instance,  in  Zurich,  Berlin  and 
its  suburbs,  London,  Vienna,  Munich,  we  already  find 
wonderfully  equipped  houses,  in  which  well-to-do  fam- 
ilies— others  could  not  meet  the  expense — reside  and  en- 
joy a  great  many  of  the  advantages  described  above.* 

*Among  2521   dwellings  erected  in  Wilmersdorf  during  1908,  the 
following  number  were  equipped  with : 

Central  heating 1001  or  39.71  per  cent. 

Hot  water  supply 1373    '    5446 

Electric   light 1288    '    51.09 

Baths    2063    '81.83 

Elevators   699    '    27.73 

Vacuum    cleaners 304    '    12.06 

All  of  them  were  supplied  with  gas. 

In  and  near  Berlin  there  also  are  a  number  of  houses  furnished 
with  a  central  kitchen.  In  this  common  kitchen  the  food  for  all  the 
residents  of  the  house  is  prepared.  Thus  bourgeois  society  contains 
all  the  germs  of  future  transformation.  "The  garden  city  of  the 
future  will  not  only  contain  the  town  hall,  the  central  gas,  electric 
lighting  and  heating  plant,  the  schools  and  libraries,  but  a  central 
kitchen  also.  It  is  not  impossible  that  the  underground  passages, 
containing  the  electric  cables  and  heating-pipes,  will  be  expanded, 
and  that  through  them  small  automatic  wagons  will  carry  the  food 
directly  into  the  residences  upon  an  order  by  telephone,  similar  to  the 
underground,  electric  mail-carriers  that  have  been  planned,  for  trans- 
porting the  mail  from  one  post-office  to  another  in  the  large  cities. 
That  is  much  simpler  and  can  be  attained  much  more  easily  than  the 
solution  of  the  problem  of  aerial  navigation  that  still  seemed  utterly 
Utopian  a  short  while  ago."  E.  Lilienthal — The  Reform  of  Domestic 
Work,  "Documents  of  Progress/'  1009. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  465 

Here  again  we  have  an  illustration  of  how  bourgeois 
society  paves  the  way  for  the  revolutionizing  of  domes- 
tic life,  though  only  for  its  chosen  few.  But  when  do- 
mestic life  will  be  generally  transformed  in  the  manner 
we  have  pointed  out,  then  the  domestic  servant,  this 
''slave  to  all  whims  of  the  mistress,"  will  disappear.  But 
the  "lady  of  the  house"  will  disappear  also.  "Without 
servants,  no  civilization,"  Mr.  v.  Treitschke  exclaims, 
horror-stricken,  with  an  amusing  pathos.  He  can  picture 
society  without  servants  as  little  as  Aristotle  could  pic- 
ture it  without  slaves.  It  comes  as  a  surprise  to  us, 
though,  that  Mr.  v.  Treitschke  regards  our  servants  as 
the  "standard-bearers  of  our  civilization."  Treitschke, 
like  Eugen  Richter,  is  also  worried  over  the  shining  of 
shoes  and  the  cleaning  of  clothes,  which  people  cannot 
possibly  attend  to  themselves.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  nine- 
tenths  of  the  people  do  polish  their  own  shoes  and  clean 
their  own  clothes  to-day,  or  women  do  it  for  their  hus- 
bands, or  daughters  or  sons  do  it  for  the  family,  and  we 
could  ansewr  that  what  has  been  done  so  far  by  the  nine- 
tenths  might  as  well  be  done  by  the  remaining  tenth, 
also.  There  might  be  still  another  way.  Why  should 
not,  in  future,  young  persons,  regardless  of  sex,  be  called 
upon  to  perform  such  and  similar  necsssary  tasks? 
Work  is  no  disgrace,  not  even  when  it  consists  of  shining 
shoes.  That  has  been  experienced  by  many  an  officer  of 
noble  birth  who  had  to  make  his  escape  to  the  United 
States  on  account  of  debts,  and  there  became  a  porter  or 
a  boot-black.  In  one  of  his  pamphlets,  Mr.  Eugen 
Richter  even  has  the  shoe-polishing  problem  cause  the 
downfall  of  the  "Socialist  chancellor"  and  the  disrup- 
tion of  the  "Socialist  state."  For  the  "Socialist  chancel- 
lor" refuses  to  polish  his  own  shoes,  and  that  is  his  great 
misfortune.  Our  opponents  have  enjoyed  this  descrip- 
tion hugely  and  have  thereby  only  proved  that  their  de- 
mands on  a  criticism  of  Socialism  are  exceedingly  mod- 
est. Mr.  Eugen  Richter  lived  to  experience  the  great 
grief  that  a  member  of  his  own  party,  in  Nuremberg, 
invented  a  shoe-polishing  machine,  shortly  after  the  pub- 
lication of  his  pamphlet,  and  that,  at  the  World's  Fair,  at 
Chicago,  an  electric  shoe-polishing  machine  was  exhibited 
that  performed  the  task  to  perfection.  So  Richter's  and 


466  Free  Development  of  Individuality 

Treitschke's  main  argument  against  Socialistic  society 
has  been  shattered  by  an  invention  made  within  bour- 
geois society  itself. 
The  revolutionary  transformation  that  is  changing  all 

1  human  relations  completely,  especially  the  position  of 
women,  is  being  consummated  under  our  very  eyes.  It  is 
only  a  question  of  time  when  society  will  take  up  this 
transformation  on  a  large  scale,  will  hasten  and  general- 

i  ize  the  process,  and  will  thereby  enable  all  to  participate 

1  in  its  countless  and  multiform  advantages. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
Woman  in  the  Future. 

This  chapter  may  be  brief.  It  merely  contains  the 
conclusions  that  may  be  drawn  in  regard  to  the  position 
of  woman  in  future  society,  from  all  that  has  been  said 
so  far ;  conclusions  that  every  reader  can  easily  draw  for 
himself. 

In  the  new  society  woman  will  be  entirely  independent, 
both  socially  and  economically.  She  will  not  be  subjected 
to  even  a  trace  of  domination  and  exploitation,  but  will 
be  free  and  man's  equal,  and  mistress  of  her  own  lot.  Her 
education  will  be  the  same  as  man's,  with  the  exception 
of  those  deviations  that  are  necessitated  by  the  differ- 
ences of  sex  and  sexual  functions.  Living  under  normal 
conditions  of  life,  she  may  fully  develop  and  employ  her 
physical  and  mental  faculties.  She  chooses  an  occupa- 
tion suited  to  her  wishes,  inclinations  and  abilities,  and 
works  under  the  same  conditions  as  man.  Engaged  as  a 
practical  working  woman  in  some  field  of  industrial 
activity,  she  may,  during  a  second  part  of  the  day,  be 
educator,  teacher  or  nurse,  during  a  third  she  may  prac- 
tice a  science  or  an  art,  and  during  a  fourth  she  may  per- 
form some  administrative  function.  She  studies,  works, 
enjoys  pleasures  and  recreation  with  other  women  or 
with  men,  as  she  may  choose  or  as  occasions  may  present 
themselves. 

In  the  choice  of  love  she  is  as  free  and  unhampered  as 


The  Socialization  of  Society  467 

man.     She    woos  or  is  wooed,  and  enters  into  a  union 


prompted  by  no  other  considerations  but  her  own  feel- 
ings. This  union  is  a  private  agreement,  without  the  in-  ; 
terference  of  a  functionary,  just  as  marriage  has  been  a 
private  agreement  until  far  into  the  middle  ages.  Here 
Socialism  will  create  nothing  new,  it  will  merely  rein- 
state, on  a  higher  level  of  civilization  and  under  a  differ- 
ent social  form,  what  generally  prevailed  before  private 
property  dominated  society. 

Man  shall  dispose  of  his  own  person,  provided  that 
the  gratification  of  his  impulses  is  not  harmful  or  detri- 
mental to  others.  The  satisfaction  of  the  sexual  impulse 
is  as  much  the  private  concern  of  each  individual,  as  the 
satisfaction  of  any  other  natural  impulse.  No  one  is  ac- 
countable to  any  one  else,  and  no  third  person  has  a  right 
to  interfere.  What  I  eat  and  drink,  how  I  sleep  and 
dress  is  my  private  affair,  and  my  private  affair  also  is 
my  intercourse  with  a  person  of  the  opposite  sex.  Intelli- 
gence and  culture,  personal  independence, — qualities  that 
will  become  natural,  owing  to  the  education  and  condi- 
tions prevailing  in  the  new  society, — will  prevent  persons 
from  committing  actions  that  will  prove  detrimental  to 
themselves.  Men  and  women  of  future  society  will  pos- 
sess far  more  self-control  and  a  better  knowledge  of  their 
own  natures,  than  men  and  women  of  to-day.  The  one 
fact  alone,  that  the  foolish  prudery  and  secrecy  connected 
with  sexual  matters  will  Disappear,  will  make  the  rela- 
tion of  the  sexes  a  far  more  natural  and  healthful  one.  If 
between  a  man  and  woman  who  have  entered  into  a 
union,  incompatibility,  disappointment  or  revulsion 
should  appear,  morality  commands  a  dissolution  of  the 
union  which  has  become  unnatural,  and  therefore  im- 
moral. As  all  those  circumstances  will  have  vanished 
that  have  so  far  compelled  a  great  many  women  either 
to  chose  celibacy  or  prostitution,  men  can  no  longer 
dominate  over  women.  On  the  other  hand,  the  com- 
pletely changed  social  conditions  will  have  removed  the 
many  hindrances  and  harmful  influences  that  affect  mar 
ried  life  to-day  and  frequently  prevent  its  full  develop- 
ment or  make  it  quite  impossible. 

The  impediments,  contradictions  and  unnatural  fea- 
tures in  the  present  position  of  woman  are  being  recog- 


468  Woman  in  the  Future 

nized  by  ever  wider  circles,  and  find  expression  in  our 
modern  literature  on  social  questions,  as  well  as  in  mod- 
ern fiction ;  only  the  form  in  which  it  is  expressed  some- 
times fails  to  answer  the  purpose.  That  present  day 
marriage  is  not  suited  to  its  purpose,  is  no  longer  denied 
by  any  thinking  person.  So  it  is  not  surprising  that 
even  such  persons  favor  a  free  choice  of  love  and  a  free 
dissolution  of  the  marriage  relation,  who  are  not  inclined 
to  draw  the  resulting  conclusions  that  point  to  a  change 
of  the  entire  social  system.  They  believe  that  freedom 
in  sexual  intercourse  is  justifiable  among  members  of  the 
privileged  classes  only.  In  a  controversy,*  in  which  she 
opposes  the  emancipation  of  women  as  set  forth  by  the 
writer,  Fanny  Lewald,  Matilde  Reichhardt-Stromberg 
says  the  following: 

"If  you  (F.  L.),  demand  complete  equality  for 
women  in  social  and  political  life,  George  Sand  must  also 
be  justified  in  her  struggles  for  emancipation,  that  strove 
for  nothing  else  but  to  possess  what  has  long  since  been 
man's  undisputed  possession.  For  no  good  reason  is  to 
be  found  why  only  woman's  head,  and  not  also  her  heart, 
shall  participate  in  this  equality,  why  she  shall  not  give 
and  take  as  freely  as  man.  On  the  contrary :  if  nature 
gives  woman  the  right,  and  thereby  also  the  duty, — for 
we  shall  not  bury  a  talent  bestowed  upon  us, — to  exert 
her  brain  to  the  utmost  in  competition  with  the  intellec- 
tual Titans  of  the  opposite  sex,  it  must  also  give  her  the 
i  ight  to  preserve  her  equilibrium,  just  as  they  do,  by 
quickening  the  circulation  of  her  heart  in  whatever  man- 
ner she  may  see  fit.  We  all  read  without  being  shocked 
in  the  least  how,  for  instance,  Goethe, — to  choose  the 
greatest  as  an  example, — again  and  again  wasted  the 
warmth  of  his  heart  and  the  enthusiasm  of  his  great  soul 
upon  some  other  woman.  Intelligent  people  consider  this 
perfectly  natural,  and  only  narrow-minded  moralists  con- 
demn it.  Why,  then,  deride  the  "great  souls"  among 
women?  Let  us  assume  that  the  entire  female  sex  con- 
sisted of  great  souls  like  George  Sand ;  let  us  assume  that 
every  woman  were  a  Lucretia  Florini,  whose  children  are 
all  children  of  love,  but  who  brings  up  these  children  with 
true  motherly  love  and  devotion,  as  well  as  in  a  rational 
and  intelligent  manner.  How  would  the  world  fare? 


The  Socialization  of  Society  469 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  world  could  continue  to  exist 
and  develop  as  to-day,  and  might  even  fare  exception- 
ally well." 

But  why  should  only  ''great  souls"  lay  claim  to  this 
right,  and  not  also  the  others  who  are  no  great  souls? 
If  a  Goethe  and  a  George  Sand, — to  select  only  these  two 
from  among  the  many  who  have  done  and  are  doing  like- 
wise,— could  follow  the  inclinations  of  their  hearts,  if  on 
Goethe's  love  affairs,  especially,  entire  libraries  are  pub- 
lished that  are  devoured  in  a  sort  of  reverend  ecstacy  by 
his  admirers,  why  should  we  condemn  in  others  what  be- 
comes an  object  of  admiration  in  the  case  of  a  Goethe,  or 
a  George  Sand? 

Of  course,  it  is  impossible  to  assert  the  free  choice 
of  love  in  bourgeois  society,  as  we  have  shown  by  our 
entire  line  of  argument,  but  if  the  community  were 
placed  under  similar  social  conditions  as  are  enjoyed  to- 
day only  by  the  few  who  are  materially  and  intellectually 
favored,  all  would  have  the  possibility  of  a  similar  free-- 
dom.  In  "Jacques,"  George  Sand  depicts  a  husband  who 
judges  the  illicit  relation  of  his  wife  with  another  man  in 
the  following  manner:  "no  human  being  can  command 
love,  and  none  is  guilty,  if  he  feels  or  goes  without  it. 
What  degrades  the  woman  is  the  lie;  what  constitutes 
the  adultery  is  not  the  hour  she  grants  to  her  lover,  but 
the  night  that  she  thereupon  spends  with  her  husband." 
As  a  result  of  this  conception,  Jacques  feels  it  to  be  his 
duty  to  make  way  for  his  rival  (Borel),  and  philoso- 
phizes accordingly:  "Borel,  in  my  place,  would  have 
calmly  beaten  his  wife,  and  would  not  have  blushed  to 
receive  her  into  his  arms  afterwards,  degraded  by  his 
blows  and  his  kisses.  There  are  men  who  would  not 
hesitate,  according  to  oriental  custom,  to  kill  their  faith- 
less wife,  because  they  regard  her  as  their  lawful  prop- 
erty. Others  fight  a  duel  with  their  rival,  kill  or  remove 
him,  and  then  beg  the  woman,  whom  they  claim  to  love, 
for  kisses  or  caresses,  while  she  either  withdraws  full  of 
horror  or  yields  in  despair.  These,  in  cases  of  conjugal 
love,  are  the  most  common  ways  of  acting,  and  it  seems 


*"Rights  of  Women  and  Duties  of  Women."     A  Reply  to  Fanny 
Lewald's  Epistles :  "For  and  against  Women." 


47°  Woman  in  the  Future 

to  me  that  the  love  of  hogs  is  less  vile  and  debasing,  than 
the  love  of  such  men."  To  these  sentences,  Brandes  ob- 
serves:* These  truths,  that. are  elemental  ones  to  edu- 
cated persons  to-day,  were  atrocious  sophisms  fifty  years 
ago."  But  the  propertied  and  cultured  classes  do  not  ven- 
ture even  to-day,  openly  to  avow  the  principles  of  George 
Sand,  altho  they  actually  live  in  accordance  with  them. 
They  are  hypocrites  in  marirage,  as  they  are  hypocrites 
in  morals  and  religion. 

What  was  done  by  Goethe  and  George  Sand,  is  being 
done  by  thousands  of  others  to-day,  who  cannot  beai 
comparison  with  Goethe  or  Sand,  without  suffering  a  loss 
of  social  esteem.  Everything  can  be  done  if  people  hold  a 
respected  position.  Nevertheless  the  liberties  of  a  Goethe 
and  a  George  Sand  are  immoral  from  the  standpoint  of 
bourgeois  morality,  for  they  are  in  opposition  to  the 
moral  laws  laid  down  by  society,  and  are  in  contradiction 
to  the  nature  of  our  social  system.  Compulsory  marriage 
is  the  normal  marriage  to  bourgeois  society.  It  is  the 
only  "moral"  union  of  the  sexes ;  any  other  sexual  union 
is  "immoral."  Bourgeois  marriage  is, — this  we  have  irre- 
futibly  proved, — the  result  of  bourgeois  relations.  Closely 
connected  with  private  property  and  the  right  of  inherit- 
ance, it  is  contracted  to  obtain  "legitimate"  children.  Un- 
der the  pressure  of  social  conditions  it  is  forced  also  upon 
those  who  have  nothing  to  bequeath.  It  becomes  a  social 
law,  the  violation  of  which  is  punished  by  the  state,  by 
imprisonment  of  the  men  or  women  who  have  committed 
adultery  and  have  become  divorced. 

But  in  Socialistic  society  there  will  be  nothing  to  be- 
queath, unless  house  furnishings  and  personal  belongings 
should  be  regarded  as  hereditary  portions ;  so  the  modern 
form  of  marriage  becomes  untenable  from  this  point  of 
view  also.  This  also  settles  the  question  of  inheritance, 
which  Socialism  will  not  need  to  abolish.  Where  there  is 
no  private  property,  there  can  be  no  right  of  inheritance. 
So  woman  will  be  free,  and  the  children  she  may  have 
will  not  impair  her  freedom,  they  will  only  increase  her 
pleasure  in  life.  Nurses,  teachers,  women  friends,  the 


*George    Brandes :     The    literature    of    the    Nineteenth    Century. 
Leipsic,  1883. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  471 

rising  female  generation,  all  these  will  stand  by  her  when 
she  is  in  need  of  assistance. 

It  is  possible  that  there  will  be  some  men,  even  in  the 
future,  who  will  say,  like  A.  Humboldt :  "I  am  not  built 
to  become  the  father  of  a  family.  Moreover,  I  consider 
marriage  a  sin,  the  begetting  of  children  a  crime."  What 
does  it  matter?  The  force  of  the  natural  impulse  will 
establish  the  equilibrium  with  others.  We  are  not 
alarmed  either  by  Humboldt's  hostility  to  marriage,  or  by 
the  philosophic  pessimism  of  Schoppenhauer,  Mainlandei- 
or  v.  Hartmann,  who  hold  out  to  man  the  prospect  of  self- 
destruction  in  the  "ideal  state."  We  are  fully  agreed  with 
Dr.  Ratzel,  who  writes  on  this  subject: 

Man  should  no  longer  regard  himself  an  exception  to  ; 
natural  laws.  He  should  finally  strive  to  recognize  the 
laws  underlying  his  own  thoughts  and  actions,  and 
should  endeavor  to  live  in  accordance  with  these  laws.  He 
will  eventually  learn  to  arrange  his  life  with  his  fellow- 
beings,  that  is,  the  family  and  the  state,  not  according  to 
the  precepts  laid  down  in  centuries  gone  by,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  rational  principles  derived  from  an  understand- 
ing of  nature.  Politics,  morals,  laws,  that  are  at  present 
drawn  from  various  sources,  will  be  shaped  according  to 
natural  laws.  An  existence  worthy  of  human  beings,  that 
mankind  has  been  dreaming  of  for  thousands  of  years, 
will  become  a  reality  at  last.* 

This  time  is  rapidly  approaching.  For  thousands  of 
years  human  society  has  passed  thru  all  phases  of  devel- 
opment, only  to  return  to  its  starting  point :  communistic 
property  and  complete  liberty  and  fraternity;  but  no 
longer  only  for  the  members  of  the  gens,  but  for  all 
human  beings.  That  is  what  the  great  progress  consists 
of.  What  bourgeois  society  has  striven  for  in  vain,  in 
what  it  failed  and  was  bound  to  fail, — to  establish  liberty, 
equality  and  fraternity  for  all, — will  be  realized  by  Social- 
ism. Bourgeois  society  could  merely  advance  the  theory, 
but  here,  as  in  many  other  things,  practice  was  contrary 
to  the  theories.  Socialism  will  unite  theory  and  prac- 
tice. 

But  as  mankind  returns  to  the  starting  point  of  its 

*Quoted  by  Ernst  Haeckel  in  his  "Natural  Story  of  Creation." 


472  Woman  in  the  Future 

development,  it  will  do  so  on  an  infinitely  higher  level  of 
civilization.  If  primitive  society  had  common  owner- 
ship in  the  gens  and  the  clan,  it  was  but  in  a  coarse  form 
and  an  undeveloped  stage.  The  course  of  development 
that  man  has  since  undergone,  has  reduced  common  prop- 
erty to  small  and  insignificant  remnants,  has  shattered 
the  gens  and  has  finally  atomized  society ;  but  in  its  vari- 
ous phases  it  has  also  greatly  heightened  the  productive 
forces  of  society  and  the  extensiveness  of  its  demands;  it 
has  transformed  the  gentes  and  the  tribes  into  nations, 
and  has  thereby  again  created  a  condition  that  is  in  glar- 
ing contradiction  to  the  requirements  of  society.  It  is 
the  task  of  the  future  to  remove  this  contradiction  by  re- 
establishing the  common  ownership  of  property  and  the 
means  of  production  on  the  broadest  basis. 

Society  takes  back  what  it  has  at  one  time  possessed 
and  has  itself  created,  but  it  enables  all  to  live  in  accord- 
ance with  the  newly  created  conditions  of  life  on  the 
highest  level  of  civilization.  In  other  words,  it  grants  to 
all  what  under  more  primitive  conditions  has  been  the 
privilege  of  single  individuals  or  classes.  Now  woman, 
too,  is  restored  to  the  active  position  maintained  by  her 
in  primitive  society;  only  she  no  longer  is  mistress,  but 
man's  equal. 

"The  end  of  the  development  of  the  state  resembles  the 
beginnings  of  human  existence.  Primitive  equality  is  re- 
instated. The  maternal  material  existence  opens  and 
closes  the  cycle  of  human  affairs."  Thus  Backofen,  in  his 
book  on  The  Matriarchate ;  and  Morgan  says :  "Since  the 
advent  of  civilization,  the  increase  of  wealth  has  been  so 
enormous,  its  forms  so  varied,  its  application  so  exten- 
sive, and  its  administration  so  skillful  in  the  interest  of 
the  owners,  that  this  wealth  has  become  an  invincible 
power  against  the  people.  The  human  mind  is  helpless 
and  bewildered  in  the  face  of  its  own  creation.  And  yet 
the  time  will  come,  when  human  intelligence  will  be  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  master  wealth,  when  it  will  determine 
both  the  relation  of  the  state  to  the  property  that  it  pro- 
tects, and  the  limit  of  the  rights  of  individual  owners.  The 
interests  of  society  are  absolutely  paramount  to  individ- 
ual interests,  and  both  must  be  placed  into  a  just  and  har- 
monious relation.  Pursuit  of  wealth  is  not  the  ultimate 


The  Socialization  of  Society  473 

aim  of  man,  if  progress  is  to  remain  the  law  of  the  future 
as  it  has  been  the  law  of  the  past.  The  time  that  has 
elapsed  since  the  advent  of  civilization  is  only  a  small 
fraction  of  the  past  existence  of  humanity;  it  is  only  a 
small  fraction  of  its  coming  existence.  We  are  threat- 
ened by  the  dissolution  of  society  as  the  termination  of  a 
historic  career,  whose  sole  aim  is  wealth ;  for  a  career  of 
this  sort  contains  the  elements  of  its  own  destruction. 
Democracy  in  administration,  fraternity  in  social  rela- 
tions, general  education, — these  will  initiate  the  next, 
higher  stage  of  society,  toward  which  experience,  reason 
and  science  are  constantly  leading  us.  It  will  be  a  resur- 
rection, only  in  a  higher  form,  of  the  liberty,  equality  and 
fraternity  of  the  old  gens.* 

So  men,  proceeding  from  the  most  varied  standpoints, 
arrive  at  the  same  conclusions,  as  a  result  of  their  scien- 
tific investigations.  The  complete  emancipation  of 
woman,  and  her  establishment  of  equal  rights  with  man  is 
one  of  the  aims  of  our  cultured  development,  whose  reali- 
zation no  power  on  earth  can  prevent.  But  it  can  be  ac- 
complished only  by  means  of  a  transformation  that  will 
abolish  the  rule  of  man  over  man,  including  the  rule  of 
the  capitalist  over  the  laborer.  Then  only  can  humanity 
attain  its  fullest  development.  The  "golden  age"  of 
which  men  have  been  dreaming,  and  for  which  they  have 
been  yearning  for  thousands  of  years,  will  come  at  last. 
Class  rule  will  forever  be  at  an  end,  and  with  it  the  rule 
of  man  over  woman. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

INTERNATIONALLY. 

But  an  existence  worthy  of  human  beings  cannot  be 
the  manner  of  living  of  a  single  privileged  nation,  for,  be- 
ing isolated  from  all  other  nations,  it  could  neither  estab- 
lish nor  maintain  this  condition.  Our  entire  develop- 
ment is  the  product  of  the  combined  action  of  national 

^Morgan :     Ancient  History. 


474  Intel-nationality 

and  international  forces  and  relations.  Altho  the  national 
ideal  still  dominates  the  minds  to  a  great  extent  and  is 
used  as  a  means  for  maintaining  political  and  social  ruler- 
ship, — for  this  is  possible  only  within  national  bounds, — 
we  are  already  deeply  imbued  with  internationalism. 

Treaties  of  commerce,  tariff  and  navigation,  the  world 
postal  union,  international  expositions,  congresses  on  in- 
ternational law  and  international  measurements  of  de- 
grees, other  international  scientific  congresses  and  asso- 
ciations, international  expeditions  of  exploration,  com- 
merce and  trade,  and  especially  the  international  conven- 
tions of  workingmen,  who  are  the  heralds  of  the  new  era, 
and  to  whose  influence  it  is  due  that,  during  the  spring  of 
1890,  upon  an  invitation  from  the  German  Empire,  the 
first  international  conference  on  workingmen's  protective 
legislation  was  held  in  Berlin, — all  this  proves  the  inter- 
national character  that  the  relations  of  civilized  nations 
have  assumed,  notwithstanding  their  national  seclusion. 
Beside  speaking  of  national  economy,  we  speak  of  inter- 
national economy,  and  consider  the  latter  more  import- 
ant, because  the  welfare  of  the  different  nations  depends 
upon  it  to  a  great  extent.  A  great  many  of  our  domestic 
products  are  exchanged  for  foreign  products,  that  we  can 
no  longer  dispense  with.  As  one  branch  of  industry  suf- 
fers when  another  flags,  so  the  entire  national  production 
of  a  given  country  is  very  materially  injured  by  a  crisis 
in  another  country.  The  relations  of  the  different  coun- 
tries to  one  another  are  constantly  becoming  more  cor- 
dial, regardless  of  the  passing  disturbances,  like  wars  and 
the  instigations  of  national  hatred,  because  these  rela- 
tions are  dominated  by  material  interests,  the  strongest 
of  all.  Every  new  highway,  every  improvement  in  the 
means  of  transportation,  every  invention  or  improvement 
in  the  process  of  production  which  leads  to  a  cheapening 
of  commodities,  strengthens  these  relations.  The  ease 
with  which  personal  relations  are  established  between 
widely  separated  countries  and  nations,  is  a  new,  im- 
portant link  in  the  chain  of  connections.  Emigration  and 
colonization  are  other  powerful  levers.  Nations  learn 
from  one  another  and  strive  to  excel  each  other.  Beside 
the  exchange  of  all  kinds  of  material  products,  an  ex- 
change of  intellectual  products  takes  place,  both  in  their 


The  Socialization  of  Society  475 

original  forms  of  expression  and  in  translations.  To 
millions  of  people  it  becomes  a  necessity  to  learn  foreign 
languages,  and  beside  material  advantages,  nothing  is 
more  likely  to  remove  prejudice  and  to  arouse  sympathy, 
than  an  acquaintance  with  the  language  and  intellectual 
products  of  a  foreign  nation. 

The  effect  of  this  process  of  approach  on  an  interna- 
tional  scale  is  an  increasing  resemblance  in  the  social 
conditions  of  the  various  nations.  With  the  most  ad- 
vanced civilized  nations,  that  may  therefore  be  regarded 
as  the  standard,  this  resemblance  is  so  great,  that  who- 
ever knows  the  economic  structure  of  one  nation,  prac- 
tically knows  it  of  all.  It  is  as  in  nature,  where  animals 
belonging  to  the  same  species  have  skeletons  that  are 
identical  in  organization  and  structure,  and  if  a  scientist 
is  given  some  parts  of  such  skeleton  he  can  theoretically 
reconstruct  the  entire  animal. 

A  further  conclusion  is  that,  wherever  similar  social 
conditions  exist,  the  results  springing  from  them  must  be 
similar.  Accumulation  of  great  wealth  points  to  the  op- 
posite extreme  of  wage-slavery,  oppression  of  the  masses 
by  the  system  of  production,  rule  of  the  masses  by  the 
propertied  minority,  and  all  the  resulting  evils. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  we  see  that  the  class  antagonisn 
and  class  struggle,  which  is  raging  in  Germany,  is  stir- 
ring all  of  Europe,  the  United  States  of  America  and  Aus- 
tralia. In  Europe  we  meet  with  a  spirit  of  unrest  and 
dissatisfaction  from  Russia  to  Portugal,  from  the  Balkans, 
Hungary  and  Italy  to  England  and  Ireland.  Every- 
where we  perceive  the  same  symptoms  of  social  fermen- 
tation, general  dissatisfaction  and  decomposition.  Altho 
these  movements  differ  outwardly,  according  to  the  de- 
gree of  development  and  the  character  of  the  population, 
they  all  are  identical  in  character.  Profound  social  an- 
tagonism is  the  underlying  cause.  With  each  year  this 
antagonism  is  growing  more  pronounced,  the  fermenta- 
tion and  dissatisfaction  pervades  the  body  social  more 
and  more,  until  perhaps  some  slight  provocation  will 
cause  an  outbreak  that  will  spread  with  the  rapidity  of 
lightning  over  the  entire  civilized  world,  and  will  every- 
where arouse  men  to  side  with  one  or  the  other  party  in 
the  great  conflict.  It  will  be  the  struggle  of  the  new 


476  Intel-nationality 

world  against  the  old.  Masses  will  enter  the  arena,  and 
the  struggle  will  be  conducted  with  an  amount  of  intelli- 
gence such  as  the  world  has  never  seen  in  any  previous 
struggle,  such  as  it  will  never  see  again ;  for  it  will  be  the 
last  social  struggle.  Standing  at  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century,  we  can  see  this  struggle  approaching 
its  last  stages  in  which  the  new  ideas  will  be  victorious. 

The  new  society  will  construct  itself  upon  an  interna- 
tional basis.  The  nations  will  fraternize,  they  will  join 
hands,  and  will  endeavor  to  extend  the  new  conditions  to 
all  nations  of  the  world.*  One  nation  will  no  longer  ap- 
proach another  as  an  enemy,  to  exploit  and  to  oppress  it, 
or  as  the  upholder  of  a  foreign  religion  that  it  seeks  to 
force  upon  it,  but  as  a  friend,  endeavoring  to  make  civil- 
ized beings  of  all  men.  The  tasks  of  colonization  and 
civilization  of  the  new  society  will  differ  as  radically  from 
those  of  the  present  in  their  very  nature,  and  in  the  means 
employed  by  them,  as  the  two  social  orders  differ  from 
one  another.  Neither  powder  and  lead  nor  "fire-water  ' 
and  the  Bible  will  employed.  The  mission  of  civilization 
will  be  undertaken  by  peaceable  means,  that  will  make 
the  civilizers  appear  to  barbarians  and  savages  not  as 
enemies,  but  as  benefactors.  Reasonable  voyagers  and 
explorers  have  long  since  experienced  how  successful 
these  methods  are. 

When  the  civilized  nations  are  united  in  a  mighty 
federation,  then  the  time  will  have  come  when  the  trum- 
pets of  war  shall  be  silenced  forever.  Eternal  peace  will 
then  no  longer  be  a  dream,  as  uniformed  gentlemen 
would  have  the  world  believe.  This  time  will  arrive  as 
soon  as  the  nations  will  have  recognized  their  true  inter- 
ests. These  interests  are  not  advanced  by  quarrels  and 
conflicts,  by  warlike  preparations  that  destroy  countries 
and  nations,  but  by  peaceable  agreements  and  common 
works  of  civilization.  Moreover,  the  ruling  classes  and 
their  governments  see  to  it, — as  has  been  previously  set 
forth, — that  armaments  and  wars  come  to  an  end  by 
means  of  their  own  enormity.  So  the  last  weapons,  like 

*"At  present  national  interests  and  human  interests  are  hostile  to 
each  other.  On  a  higher  level  of  civilization  both  interests  will  be- 
come identical." — v.  Thuenen. — The  Isolated  State. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  477 

so  many  that  have  preceded  them,  will  be  gathered  into 
old  curiosity  collections  to  prove  to  coming  generations 
how  men,  for  thousands  of  years,  often  lacerated  one  an- 
other like  wild  beasts  of  the  jungle — until  man  finally  tri- 
umphed over  the  wild  beast  within  him. 

That  national  characteristics  and  differences  lead  to 
wars, — these  characteristics  and  differences  being  arti- 
ficially stimulated  by  the  ruling  classes,  so  that  a  great  war 
may,  in  case  of  necessity,  counteract  dangerous  tenden- 
cies in  the  interior, — is  confirmed  by  an  utterance  of  the 
late  General  Fieldmarshal  Moltke.  In  the  first  volume 
of  his  posthumous  work  that  deals  with  the  German- 
French  War  of  1870-71,  he  says,  among  other  things,  in 
the  introductory  remarks:  "So  long  as  nations  lead  a 
separate  existence,  there  will  be  differences  that  can  only 
be  settled  by  force  of  arms.  But  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
the  wars  may  become  rare  as  they  have  become  more 
terrible." 

This  national  separation,  that  is,  this  hostile  exclusion1 
of  one  nation  from  another,  is  passing  away  in  spite  of  all 
endeavors  to  maintain  it,  and  so  coming  generations  will 
find  it  an  easy  matter  to  carry  out  tasks,  that  gifted 
minds  have  long  since  planned  and  have  attempted  to 
accomplish,  but  unsuccessfully.  Condorcet  already  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  introducing  a  universal  language.  The 
late  ex-president  of  the  United  States,  Ulysses  S.  Grant, 
said  in  an  address :  "Since  commerce,  education,  and  the 
quick  transportation  of  thoughts  and  objects  by  telegraph 
and  steam  have  transformed  everything,  I  believe  that 
God  is  preparing  the  world  to  become  one  nation,  to 
speak  one  language,  and  to  attain  a  degree  of  perfection 
in  which  armies  and  navies  will  be  superfluous."  With  a 
full-blooded  Yankee,  God  must,  of  course,  be  the  adjuster, 
instead  of  recognizing  that  matters  are  being  adjusted  in 
consequence  of  historic  evolution.  That  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at.  Ignorance  or  hypocrisy  in  religious  mat- 
ters are  nowhere  greater  than  in  the  United  States.  The 
less  the  power  of  the  state  guides  the  masses  by  its  or- 
ganization, the  more  must  it  be  done  by  religion,  by  the 
church.  Therefore  the  bourgeoisie  appears  most  pious 
wherever  the  power  of  the  state  is  weakest.  Beside  the 
U.  S.,  this  is  the  case  in  England,  Belgium  and 


478         The  Question  of  Population  and  Socialism 

Switzerland.  Even  the  revolutionary  Robespierre,  who 
played  with  the  heads  of  aristocrats'  and  priests  as  with 
bowling  balls,  was,  as  is  well  known,  exceedingly  relig- 
ious. Therefore  he  had  the  "supreme  being"  solemnly 
reinstated  after  its  recent  dethronement  by  the  conven- 
tion,— an  action  of  equally  bad  taste.  Since  before  the 
great  revolution  the  frivolous  and  dissolute  aristocrats 
bragged  about  their  atheism,  Robespierre  regarded  it  as 
being  aristocratic,  and  thus  denounced  it  before  the  con- 
vention in  his  speech  on  the  "supreme  being:"  "Atheism 
is  aristocratic.  The  idea  of  a  supreme  being  that  watches 
over  the  innocent  oppressed  and  punishes  triumphant 
crime,  has  sprung  from  the  midst  of  the  people.  If  there 
were  no  God  it  would  be  necessary  to  invent  one."  Virtu- 
ous Robespierre  divined  that  his  virtuous  bourgeois  re- 
public could  not  remove  social  extremes.  Therefore  he 
preached  belief  in  a  supreme  being,  avenging  wrong  and 
equalizing  what  men  could  not  yet  equalize ;  therefore 
this  belief  was  a  necessity  to  the  first  republic. 

Times  change.  One  progress  leads  to  another.  Man- 
kind will  set  ever  new  tasks  for  itself,  and  will  lead  them 
to  a  degree  of  development  in  which  national  or  religious 
hatred  and  wars  will  no  longer  be  known. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 
The  Question  of  Population  and  Socialism. 

i. — Fear  of  Over-Population. 

There  are  people  who  regard  the  question  of  popula- 
tion as  one  of  the  most  important  and  urgent  of  all,  be- 
cause, they  claim  that  we  are  threatened  with  over-popu- 
lation, indeed,  that  it  is  already  at  hand.  Therefore  this 
question  must  be  specially  treated  from  an  international 
standpoint,  for  nourishment  and  distribution  of  the  popu- 
lation have  become  more  and  more  a  matter  of  interna- 
tional concern.  There  has  been  much  discussion  on  the 
law  governing  the  growth  of  population  since  Malthus. 
In  his  famous  and  notorious  book,  an  "Essay  on  the  Prin- 
ciple of  Population,"  that  Karl  Marx  has  described  as  a 


The  Socialization  of  Society  479 

"school-boyish,  superficial  plagiarism  on  Sir  James  Stew- 
art, Townsend,  Franklin  Wallace,  etc.,  declaimed  in  a 
priest-like  manner  and  not  containing  a  single  original 
thought," — Malthus  propounds  the  theory  that  mankind 
has  the  tendency  to  increase  at  the  ratio  of  geometrical 
progression  (i,  2,  4,  8,  16,  32,  etc.),  while  food  increases 
only  at  the  ratio  of  arithmetical  progression  (i,  2,  3,  4,  5, 
etc.).  The  consequence,  he  asserts,  is  that  a  dispropor- 
tion arises  between  the  number  of  human  beings  and  the 
food  supply  which  must  lead  to  wholesale  starvation,  and 
that,  therefore,  it  becomes  necessary  to  impose  abstinence 
upon  one's  self  in  the  procreation  of  children.  He,  who 
has  not  sufficient  means  to  support  a  family  should  not 
marry,  as  there  would  not  be  sufficient  room  at  "nature's 
table"  for  his  descendants. 

The  fear  of  over-population  is  a  very  old  one.  As  we 
have  shown  in  this  book,  it  existed  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  and  was  met  with  again  at  the  close  of  the 
middle  ages.  Plato  and  Aristotle,  the  Romans,  the  small 
bourgeois  of  the  middle  ages,  they  all  were  dominated  by 
this  fear.  It  also  occupied  Voltaire,  who  wrote  a  treatise 
on  this  subject  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Other  writers  followed  him,  until  Malthus  finally 
gave  this  fear  the  most  poignant  expression. 

The  fear  of  over-population  is  always  met  with  at 
periods  when  existing  social  conditions  are  in  a  state  of 
decay.  The  general  dissatisfaction  that  prevails  at  such 
times  is  ascribed  to  the  superabundance  of  human  beings 
and  the  lack  of  food,  instead  of  being  ascribed  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  food  is  obtained  and  distributed. 

Every  exploitation  of  man  by  man  is  founded  on  class 
rule.  The  first,  and  principle  means  of  establishing  class 
rule  is  to  take  possession  of  the  soil.  Common  property 
at  first,  it  gradually  becomes  private  property.  The 
masses  become  propertyless  and  are  obliged  to  earn  their 
share  of  food  by  serving  the  propertied  class.  Under  such 
circumstances,  every  addition  to  the  family,  or  new  com- 
petitor, becomes  a  burden.  The  specter  of  over-popula- 
tion appears,  and  spreads  terror  in  the  same  measure  in 
which  the  soil  becomes  monopolized  and  loses  its  produc- 
tivity, either  because  it  is  not  sufficiently  cultivated,  or 
because  the  best  ground  is  turned  into  pastures,  or  be- 


480        The  Question  of  Population  and  Socialism 

cause  it  has  been  reserved  for  the  pleasures  of  the  hunt  of 
its  masters,  and  thus  withdrawn  from  cultivation  for 
human  food.  Rome  and  Italy  suffered  from  the  greatest 
lack  of  food  at  the  time  when  the  land  was  owned  by 
about  three  thousand  latifundia  proprietors.  Hence  the 
cry  of  fear:  the  latifundia  are  destroying  Rome!  The 
Italian  soil  was  converted  into  immense  hunting  grounds 
or  parks  for  the  pleasure  of  its  noble  owners.  Sometimes 
it  was  also  left  uncultivated,  because  its  cultivation  by 
slaves  was  more  expensive  than  to  import  grain  from 
Sicily  and  Africa ;  this  state  of  affairs  favored  the  usury 
in  grain,  in  which  the  rich  nobility  of  Rome  likewise  par- 
ticipated. The  nobility  profited  more  by  the  usury  in 
grain  than  by  cultivating  grain  in  their  own  country. 

Under  such  conditions  the  Roman  bourgeois,  or  the 
pauperized  nobleman,  preferred  to  refrain  from  marriage 
and  the  procreation  of  children.  The  premiums  placed 
on  marriage  and  the  birth  of  children,  to  prevent  a 
diminution  of  the  ruling  classes,  remained  ineffectual. 

A  similar  phenomenon  occurred  at  the  close  of  the 
middle  ages,  after  the  nobility  and  the  clergy  had,  for  cen- 
turies, by  force  and  by  stealth,  robbed  many  peasants  of 
their  property  and  usurped  the  common  land.  When  the 
peasants  revolted  as  a  result  of  all  the  abuses  they  had 
suffered,  but  were  beaten  down,  the  robbery  of  the  nobil- 
ity was  continued  on  a  still  larger  scale,  and  the  reformed 
princes  also  practiced  it  on  the  property  of  the  church. 
At  that  time  the  number  of  thieves,  beggars  and  vaga- 
bonds increased  as  never  before.  Their  number  was 
greatest  after  the  reformation.  The  expropriated  rural 
population  poured  into  the  cities ;  but  here,  tco,  tne  con- 
ditions of  life  had  been  growing  steadily  worse,  owing  to 
causes  that  have  been  set  forth  in  previous  chapters,  and 
so  "over-population"  prevailed  everywhere. 

The  appearance  of  Malthus  coincides  with  that  period 
of  English  industry  when,  as  a  result  of  the  new  inven- 
tions by  Hargreaves,  Arkwright  and  Watt,  tremendous 
mechanical  and  technical  changes  took  place.  These 
changes  especially  effected  the  cotton  and  linen  indus- 
tries, and  deprived  tens  of  thousands  of  workingmen  of 
employment,  who  were  engaged  in  these  domestic  indus- 
tries. The  concentration  of  property  in  land,  and  the 


The  Socialization  of  Society  481 

development  of  industry  on  a  large  scale,  assumed  great 
dimensions  in  England  at  that  time.  With  the  rapid  in- 
crease of  wealth  on  the  one  hand,  there  was  growing  mis- 
ery of  the  masses  on  the  other.  During  such  a  time  the 
ruling  classes,  who  have  good  cause  to  consider  the  world, 
as  it  is,  the  best  of  worlds,  had  to  seek  a  plausible  explana- 
tion, relieving  them  of  all  responsibility,  for  so  contra- 
dictory a  phenomenon  as  the  pauperization  of  the  masses 
in  the  midst  of  increasing  wealth  and  flourishing  indus- 
try. Nothing  was  more  convenient  than  to  blame  the 
too  rapid  increase  of  the  workingmen  by  their  having  too 
many  children  for  this  state  of  affairs,  instead  of  blaming 
the  fact  that  they  were  being  made  superfluous  by  the 
process  of  production,  and  the  further  fact  that  the  soil 
was  becoming  accumulated  in  the  hands  of  the  landlords. 
Under  such  conditions  the  "school-boyish,  superficial 
plagiarism  declaimed  in  a  priest-like  manner"  which  Mal- 
thus  published,  contained  an  explanation  of  existing  evils 
that  expressed  the  innermost  thoughts  and  wishes  of  the 
ruling  classes,  and  justified  them  before  the  world.  That 
explains  why  it  met  with  so  much  success  on  the  one 
hand,  and  with  such  bitter  opposition  on  the  other.  For 
the  English  bourgoisie  Malthus  had  spoken  the  right 
word  at  the  right  time,  and  so — altho  his  book  did  "not 
contain  a  single  original  thought,"  he  became  a  great  and 
famous  man,  and  his  name  came  to  stand  for  the  entire 
doctrine ! 

2. — Production  of  Over-Population. 

The  conditions  that  caused  Malthus  to  utter  his  cry 
of  warning  and  to  set  forth  his  brutal  doctrines, — they 
were  addressed  to  the  working  class,  which  meant  adding 
insult  to  injury, — have  since  expanded  with  every  decade. 
They  have  expanded,  not  only  in  the  native  land  of  Mal- 
thus, Great  Britain,  but  in  all  countries  of  the  world  that 
have  a  capitalistic  method  of  production,  which  implies 
robbery  of  the  soil  and  subjugation  of  the  masses  by 
means  of  the  machine  and  the  factory.  This  system, — as 

*That  Darwin  and  others  also  become  followers  of  Malthus  only 
proves  that  a  lack  of  economic  studies  leads  to  the  most  biased  views 
in  the  realm  of  science. 


482        The  Question  of  Population  and  Socialism 

has  been  shown, — consists  in  the  separation  of  the  worker 
from  his  means  of  production,  be  it  the  land  or  tools,  and 
their  transfer  into  the  hands  of  the  capitalists.  This  sys- 
tem constantly  creates  new  branches  of  industry,  devel- 
opes  and  concentrates  them,  but  it  also  constantly  turns 
out  into  the  street  new  masses  of  the  population  and 
makes  them  "superfluous."  In  many  cases  it  also  pro- 
motes, as  in  ancient  Rome,  the  latifundia  ownership  with 
all  its  results.  Ireland  is  the  classic  land  of  Europe  that 
has  been  afflicted  worst  of  all  by  the  English  system  of 
robbery.  As  early  as  1874  it  already  had  an  area  of 
meadow  and  pasture  land  of  12,378,244  acres,  but  only 
3,373,508  acres  of  cultivated  fields,  and  every  year  the 
population  decreases,  and  hand  in  hand  with  this  decrease 
proceeds  the  further  conversion  of  cultivated  land  into 
meadows  and  pastures  for  sheep  and  cattle  and  into  hunt- 
ing grounds  for  the  landlords.*  (In  1908  there  were 
14,805,046  acres  of  meadow  and  pasture  land  and  only 
2,238,906  acres  of  cultivated  land.)  Moreover,  the  agri- 
cultural land  of  Ireland  is,  to  a  great  extent,  rented  by 
small  tenants,  who  are  unable  to  improve  upon  the  culti- 
vation of  the  soil.  So  Ireland  presents  the  aspect  of  a 
country  that  is  retrogressing  from  an  agricultural  to  a 
pastoral  country.  At  the  same  time  the  population  that 
numbered  8  millions  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  has  declined  to  4.3  millions,  and  a  few  million 
still  are  "superfluous."  This  clearly  explains  the  rebellion 
of  the  Irish  against  England.  Scotland  presents  a  simi- 
lar picture  in  regard  to  the  ownership  and  cultivation  of 


*In  his  pathetic  poem,  ''Ireland,"  Ferdinand  Freiligrath  sings : 

The  lord  provides  that  stag  and  ox 
For  him  the  peasant's  toil  may  feed, 
Instead  of  draining  pools  and  bogs — 
Ireland's  swamps,  well  known  indeed ! 
Unused  he  leaves  and  useless  quite 
The  soil  that  wealth  of  crops  might  bear, 
There  but  the  wild  duck  wings  its  flight 
And  guinea-hens  are  nesting  there. 
Aye,  by  the  curse  of  God,  a  marsh 
And  wilderness,  four  million  acres  wide ! 


The  Socialization  of  Society  48? 

its  land.*  The  same  thing  is  re-enacted  in  Hungary, 
which  entered  upon  modern  lines  of  development  only  a 
few  decades  ago.  Few  European  countries  possess  such 
a  wealth  of  fertile  soil  as  Hungary,  and  yet  it  is  burdened 
with  debts  and  the  population  is  pauperized  and  is  at  the 
mercy  of  usurers.  Despair  drives  the  people  to  wholesale 
emigration.  The  land  is  concentrated  in  the  hands  of 
modern  magnates  of  capital,  who  apply  their  rapacious 
system  to  the  forests  and  the  fields.  It  is  likely  that  in 
a  time  not  far  distant,  Hungary  will  cease  to  be  a  grain 
exporting  country.  Italy  presents  a  similar  picture.  In 
Italy,  as  in  Germany,  political  unity  of  the  nation  has 
favored  capitalistic  development,  but  the  industrious 
peasants  of  Piedmont  and  Lombardy,  of  Tuscany, 
Romagna  and  Sicily,  are  constantly  growing  poorer  and 
are  being  utterly  ruined.  Already  swamps  and  marshes 
begin  to  reappear,  where,  up  to  a  few  decades  ago,  were 
the  well  cultivated  fields  and  gardens  of  small  peasants. 
Before  the  very  gates  of  Rome,  in  the  district  known  as 
the  Campagna,  are  hundreds  of  thousands  of  hectares  of 
land  that  are  left  uncultivated,  in  a  vicinity  that  was  one 
of  the  most  flourishing  of  ancient  Rome.  Everywhere 
are  swamps  exhaling  their  poisonous  miasms.  If  the 
necessary  means  were  employed  to  drain  the  swamps  and 
to  introduce  a  proper  system  of  irrigation,  the  population 
of  Rome  would  obtain  a  rich  source  of  nourishment  and 
enjoyment.  But  Italy  suffers  from  the  ambition  to  be- 


*"Two  million  acres,  comprising  the  most  fertile  parts  of  Scot- 
land, entirely  laid  waste !  The  natural  grass  of  Glen  Tilt  was  among 
the  most  nourishing  of  the  County  of  Perth.  The  Deer  Forest  of 
Ben  Aulder  was  the  best  grazing  ground  in  the  wide  district  of 
Badenoch ;  a  portion  of  the  Black  Mountain  Forest  was  the  best  pas- 
ture for  black-faced  sheep.  An  idea  may  be  gained  of  the  extent 
of  the  land  laid  waste  for  the  pleasure  of  the  chase,  from  the  fact 
that  it  is  larger  than  the  entire  County  of  Perth.  The  great  loss  en- 
lailed  by  this  forcible  destruction  of  the  sources  of  production  may 
be  ascertained  by  calling  to  mind  that  the  soil  of  the  Deer  Forest  of 
Ben  Aulder  could  pasture  15,000  sheep,  and  that,  moreover,  this  deer 
forest  is  but  one  thirtieth  of  the  entire  hunting  ground  of  Scotland. 
All  this  hunting  ground  is  entirely  unproductive.  It  might  as  well 
have  been  caused  to  sink  into  the  North-Sea."  The  London  "Econo- 
mist," July  2,  1866.  Quoted  by  Karl  Marx  in  "Capital." 


484       The  Question  of  Population  and  Socialism 

come  a  great  power;  so  it  ruins  the  population  by  bad 
administration,  military  and  naval  armament  and  coloni- 
zation, and  has  no  means  left  for  true  tasks  of  civilization, 
such  as  the  cultivation  of  the  Campagna.  In  southern 
Italy  and  Sicily  conditions  are  similar  as  in  the  Cam- 
pagna. Sicily,  at  one  time  the  granary  of  Rome,  is  ever 
growing  poorer.  In  all  Europe  there  is  no  poorer,  more 
exploited  and  worse  treated  population.  The  sons  of  the 
most  beautiful  country  of  Europe,  flood  half  of  Europe 
and  America,  and  because  their  needs  are  few  they  serve 
to  lower  wages.  They  emigrate  in  masses,  because  they 
do  not  wish  to  starve  on  their  native  soil,  which  they  no 
longer  own.  Malaria,  that  awful  fever,  has  spread  to 
such  an  extent  thruout  Italy,  that  in  1882  the  government 
became  alarmed  and  instituted  an  investigation.  This 
investigation  revealed  that  of  the  96  provinces  of  the 
country,  32  were  already  severely  affiicted,  32  others 
were  infected  and  only  5  remained  free  from  the  disease. 
Formerly  known  in  the  country  only,  the  disease  was  car- 
ried into  the  cities,  where  the  congested  proletarian  popu- 
lation, increased  by  the  rural  proletariat,  formed  the  cen- 
tral seat  of  the  infection. 

3. — Poverty  and  Fecundity. 

No  matter  from  what  side  we  view  the  capitalistic  sys- 
tem of  production,  we  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the 
poverty  and  misery  of  the  masses  is  not  due  to  a  lack  of 
food,  but  to  an  unequal  distribution  of  same,  and  to 
wrong  methods,  that  create  an  abundance  for  some  and 
compel  others  to  live  in  want.  The  assertions  of  Malthus 
have  sense  only  from  the  standpoint  of  capitalistic  pro- 
duction. On  the  other  hand,  the  capitalistic  method  of 
production  urges  the  production  of  children.  Cheap 
"hands,"  in  the  shape  of  children,  are  needed  for  its  fac- 
tories and  work-shops.  Among  proletarians  the  procrea- 
tion of  children  becomes  a  sort  of  calculation,  as  they 
earn  their  own  living.  The  proletarian  employed  in 
domestic  industry  is  even  obliged  to  have  many  children, 
for  they  help  him  to  be  able  to  compete.  This  is  assur- 
edly an  abominable  system;  it  increases  the  pauperiza- 
tion of  the  workingman  and  his  dependence  upon  the  em- 


The  Socialization  of  Society  485 

ployer.  The  proletarian  is  compelled  to  work  for  lower 
and  lower  wages,  and  every  labor  law  destined  to  protect 
workingmen,  that  does  not  include  the  persons  engaged 
in  domestic  industry,  only  causes  the  employer  to  widen 
the  circle  of  those  so  employed,  for  wherever  this  form 
of  production  is  possible,  it  offers  particular  advantages 
to  the  capitalist. 

But  the  capitalistic  system  does  not  lead  only  to  an 
over-production  of  goods  and  of  workers,  but  also  to  an 
over-production  of  intellect.  Intellectuals,  too,  find  it 
increasingly  difficult  to  obtain  employment,  as  the  supply 
constantly  surpasses  the  demand.  There  is  only  one 
thing  in  this  capitalistic  world  that  is  never  superfluous, 
and  that  is  capital  and  its  owner,  the  capitalist. 

If  the  bourgeois  economists  are  followers  of  Malthus, 
they  are  what  they  must  be  in  accordance  with  their  bour- 
geois interests.  Only  they  should  refrain  from  transfer- 
ring their  bourgeois  prejudices  to  Socialistic  society. 
John  Stuart  Mill  says:  "Communism  is  that  very  state 
of  affairs  of  which  one  may  expect,  that  it  will  vehement- 
ly oppose  this  sort  of  selfish  immoderation.  Every  in- 
crease of  the  population  that  would  diminish  the  com- 
fortable status  of  the  population  or  increase  its  toils,  would 
cause  direct  and  unmistakable  inconvenience  to  each  in- 
dividual member  of  the  association,  and  this  inconven- 
ience could  no  longer  be  ascribed  to  the  rapacity  of  the 
employers  or  the  unfair  privileges  of  the  rich.  Under 
such  circumstances,  public  opinion  could  not  fail  to  make 
known  its  disproval,  and  if  this  would  not  suffice,  punish- 
ments of  one  kind  or  another  would  be  resorted  to,  in 
order  to  suppress  this  and  similar  immoderations.  The 
danger  of  over-population,  then,  is  not  advanced  by  the 
communistic  theory;  this  theory,  on  the  contrary,  tends 
to  counteract  this  danger  in  a  marked  degree."  Professor 
Adolf  Wagner  says,  in  Rail's  "Text-book  of  Political 
Economy :"  "Least  of  all  could  a  Socialistic  community 
grant  absolute  freedom  of  marriage  or  freedom  in  the  pro- 
creation of  children."  The  authors  both  proceed  from 
the  opinion  that  the  tendency  toward  over-population  is 
common  to  all  social  systems,  but  they  both  grant  that 
Socialism  will  be  better  able  to  maintain  an  equilibrium 


486        The  Question  of  Population  and  Socialism 

between  population  and  nourishment  than  any  other  form 
of  society.  The  latter  is  true,  but  the  former  is  not. 

There  were,  indeed,  some  Socialists  who  were  infected 
by  the  ideas  of  Malthus,  and  feared  that  over-population 
was  "an  imminent  danger."  But  these  Socialistic  Malthu- 
sians  have  disappeared.  A  better  understanding  of  the 
nature  of  bourgeois  society  has  changed  their  opinion  on 
this  subject.  The  complaints  of  our  agrarians  also  teach 
us  that  we  have  too  much  food — viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  world  market — and  that  the  resulting  lower- 
ing of  prices  make  the  production  of  food  unprofitable. 

Our  Malthusians  imagine, — and  the  chorus  of  bour- 
geois leaders  thoughtlessly  echo  their  fears, — that  a  So- 
cialistic society  upholding  freedom  of  choice  in  love  and 
maintaining  an  existence  worthy  of  human  beings  for  all 
its  members,  would  foster  rabbit-like  propensities.  They 
imagine  that  people,  under  such  conditions,  would  in- 
dulge in  an  unbridled  satisfaction  of  their  lusts  and  in  un- 
limited procreation  of  children.  Rather  the  contrary  is 
likely  to  be  true.  So  far  not  the  well-to-do  classes  have 
had  the  greatest  number  of  children,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  poorest  classes.  Indeed,  we  may  say  without 
exaggeration :  the  poorer  the  position  of  a  proletarian 
stratum  is,  the  more  numerous  is  its  blessing  of  children ; 
occasional  exceptions  are,  of  course,  conceded.  This 
opinion  is  confirmed  by  Virchow,  who  wrote,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  last  century;  "as  the  English  laborer  in  his 
deepest  degradation,  in  the  utmost  emptiness  of  mind, 
knows  only  two  sources  of  enjoyment,  intoxication  and 
cohabitation,  so  the  population  of  Upper  Silesia,  until 
recent  years,  had  concentrated  all  its  desires  and  endeav- 
ors upon  these  two  things.  The  enjoyment  of  liquor  and 
the  satisfaction  of  the  sexual  impulse  had  become  the 
supreme  factors  of  its  existence,  and  so  it  can  be  easily 
explained  that  the  population  increased  as  rapidly  in 
numbers,  as  it  deteriorated  physically  and  morally." 

Karl  Marx  expresses  himself  similarly  in  "Capital." 
He  says :  "Not  only  the  number  of  births  and  deaths,  but 
the  absolute  size  of  the  families  also  is  in  reverse  ratio  to 
the  height  of  the  wages,  that  is,  to  the  means  of  subsist- 
ence at  the  disposal  of  the  various  categories  of  laborers. 
This  law  of  capitalistic  society  would  sound  absurd 


The  Socialization  of  Society  487 

among  savages  or  even  among  civilized  colonists.  It  re- 
minds one  of  the  enormous  reproduction  of  species  of 
animals  that  are  individually  weak  and  much  hunted." 
Marx  furthermore  quotes  Laing,  who  says :  "If  the  whole 
world  lived  in  comfortable  circumstances,  the  world 
would  soon  be  depopulated."  So  Laing  holds  the  oppo- 
site view  from  Malthus.  He  maintains  that  an  improved 
standard  of  living  does  not  increase  the  number  of  births, 
but  diminishes  them.  Herbert  Spencer  expresses  a  simi- 
lar opinion  thus:  "always  and  everywhere  perfection  of 
the  species  and  its  procreative  ability  are  opposed  to  one 
another.  From  this  follows  that  the  further  development 
of  man  will  probably  lead  to  a  decrease  in  procreation." 
We  see,  then,  that  men,  maintaining  different  standpoints 
on  other  subjects,  are  fully  agreed  on  this  one,  and  we 
fully  concur  with  their  conception. 

Lack  of  Human  Beings  and  Abundance  of  Food. 

The  whole  question  of  population  might  be  disposed 
of  by  saying,  that  for  a  long  time  to  come  this  fear  of 
over-population  is  absurd,  for  we  are  confronted  with  an 
abundance  of  food  that  increases  each  year,  so  that  we 
would  be  more  justified  in  worrying  over  how  to  apply 
this  wealth,  than  in  worrying  over  whether  it  will  suffice. 
The  producers  of  food  would  even  welcome  a  more  rapid 
increase  of  consumers.  But  our  Malthusians  are  inde- 
fatigable in  raising  objections,  and  so  we  must  meet  these 
objections,  lest  they  assert  that  they  cannot  be  answered. 
They  claim  that  the  danger  of  over-production  in  a  not 
distant  future  lies  in  the  "decrease  of  the  productivity  of 
the  soil."  Our  cultivated  soil,  they  claim,  is  becoming 
"weary  of  yields,"  an  increase  in  crops  could  no  longer 
be  expected,  and  since  fresh  soil  that  still  might  be  culti- 
vated is  becoming  rarer,  the  danger  of  a  scarcity  of  food, 
if  the  population  continues  to  increase,  is  imminent.  In 
the  chapters  on  agriculture  we  have,  so  we  believe,  al- 
ready proved  irrefutably  of  what  enormous  progress  man- 
kind is  still  capable  in  the  matter  of  obtaining  new 
masses  of  nourishment,  judging  even  by  the  present  state 
of  agricultural  science.  Nevertheless  we  will  add  some 
further  illustrations.  A  very  capable  large  land-owner 


488      The  Question  of  Population  and  Socialism 

and  an  economist  of  recognized  worth,  who,  therefore,  far 
surpassed  Malthus  in  both  respects,  as  early  as  1850,  at 
a  time  when  agricultural  chemistry  was  in  its  beginnings, 
— expressed  the  following:  "The  productivity  of  raw 
products,  especially  of  food,  will  in  future  not  lag  behind 
the  productivity  in  manufacture  and  transportation.  In 
our  days  agricultural  chemistry  is  just  beginning  to  open 
up  vistas  to  agriculture  that  may  lead  to  some  errors,  but 
that  will  ultimately  place  the  production  of  food  into  the 
power  of  society,  just  as  society  has  the  power  to-day  of 
furnishing  any  desired  quantity  of  cloth,  provided  that 
there  is  a  sufficient  supply  of  work.* 

Justus  v.  Liebig,  the  founder  of  agricultural  chemistry, 
holds  the  opinion  that  "if  there  is  sufficient  human  labor 
power  and  sufficient  manure,  the  soil  is  inexhaustible  and 
continually  yields  the  richest  crops." 

The  "law  of  decrease  of  the  productivity  of  the  soil" 
is  a  notion  of  Malthus  that  could  be  accepted  at  a  time 
when  agriculture  was  very  undeveloped,  but  it  has  long 
since  been  refuted  by  science  and  experience.  The  yield 
of  a  field  is  in  direct  ratio  to  the  amount  of  human  labor 
power  (including  science  and  technic)  expended  on  it, 
and  to  the  amount  of  proper  fertilizers  applied  to  it.  If 
the  small  peasantry  of  France  have  been  able  to  more 
than  quadruple  the  yields  of  their  soil  during  the  last  90 
years,  while  the  population  has  not  even  doubled,  what 
results  may  be  expected  from  a  Socialistic  society !  Our 
Malthusians  overlook,  furthermore,  that  under  present 
day  conditions  not  only  our  own  soil  must  be  taken  into 
consideration,  but  the  soil  of  the  entire  earth,  including 
countries  whose  fertility  is  twenty  and  thirty  times  as 
great  as  that  of  our  fields  of  the  same  size.  The  earth  is 
largely  occupied  by  man,  but  with  the  exception  of  a  very 
small  fraction,  it  is  nowhere  cultivated  and  utilized  as  it 
might  be.  Not  only  Great  Britain  could  produce  far  more 
food  than  it  is  producing  at  present,  but  also  France,  Ger- 
many and  Austria,  and  the  other  European  countries 
might  do  so  to  a  still  greater  extent.  In  little  Wurtem- 
berg  alone,  with  its  879,970  hectares  of  grain  soil,  by  ap- 
plication of  the  steam  plough,  the  average  crop  might  be 

*Rodbertus :  ''An  Elucidation  of  the  Social  Question." 


The  Socialization  of  Society  489 

increased  from  6,140,000  cwts.  to  9,000,000  cwt.  Euro- 
pean Russia,  measured  by  the  present  standard  of  the 
population  of  Germany,  might  feed  a  population  of  475 
million  instead  of  its  present  100  million.  At  present 
European  Russia  has  about  19.4  inhabitants  to  the  square 
kilometer;  Saxony  has  over  300.  The  objection  that  Rus- 
sia has  vast  stretches  of  land  that  cannot  be  rendered 
more  fertile  owing  to  their  climate,  is  true.  But  it  is 
equally  true  that  other  stretches  of  land  in  the  southern 
part  of  Russia  have  a  climate  and  a  fertility  that  Ger- 
many cannot  come  up  to.  Moreover,  the  greater  density 
of  the  population,  and  the  increased  cultivation  of  the 
soil,  will  cause  changes  in  the  climate  that  cannot  be  esti- 
mated to-day.  Wherever  men  aggregate  in  masses  cli- 
matic changes  result.  We  do  not  pay  sufficient  attention 
to  these  phenomena.  Moreover,  we  cannot  observe  them 
to  their  full  extent,  because  we  have  no  occasion  to  do 
so  and  because,  as  matters  are  at  present,  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  undertake  experiments  on  a  large  scale.  Thus 
Sweden  and  Norway,  who  are  both  sparsely  populated, 
with  their  immense  forests  and  inexhaustible  wealth  of 
metals,  their  numerous  streams  and  their  sea-coasts, 
might  become  a  rich  source  of  nourishment  to  a  dense 
population.  Under  existing  conditons  it  is  impossible  to 
obtain  the  proper  means  and  appliances  to  disclose  the 
wealth  of  these  countries,  and  so  even  a  part  of  the  sparse 
population  emigrates. 

What  has  been  said  of  the  north,  aplies  to  a  still 
greater  extent  to  the  south  of  Europe,  to  Portugal,  Spain, 
Italy,  Greece,  the  Danubian  Provinces,  Hungary,  Turkey, 
etc..  A  delightful  climate,  a  soil  so  rich  and  fertile  as  it 
can  hardly  be  found  in  the  best  regions  of  the  United 
States,  will  some  day  provide  an  abundance  of  food  for 
unnumbered  masses  of  the  population.  The  rotten  social 
and  political  conditions  of  these  countries  cause  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  persons  to  leave  Europe  and  cross  the 
ocean  instead  of  remaining  in  their  native  lands  or  set- 
tling down  in  much  nearer  and  more  conveniently  located 
places.  As  soon  as  rational  social  and  political  institu- 
tions have  been  established,  fresh  millions  of  people  will 
be  needed  to  place  those  wide  and  fertile  countries  on  a 
higher  level  of  civilization. 


4QO        The  Question  of  Population  and  Socialism 

In  order  to  achieve  higher  objects  of  civilization  in 
Europe,  we  have,  for  a  long  time  to  come,  not  a  super- 
abundance of  human  beings,  but  rather  a  dearth  of  same, 
and  under  such  circumstances  it  is  absurd  to  entertain 
any  fears  in  regard  to  over-population.*  At  the  same 
time  we  must  always  keep  in  mind  that  the  utilization  of 
existing  sources  of  nourishment  by  the  application  of 
science  and  labor  is  practically  unlimited,  and  that  every- 
day brings  us  new  discoveries  and  inventions  whereby 
the  sources  of  nourishment  are  increased. 

If  we  turn  from  Europe  to  other  parts  of  the  earth,  we 
find  that  the  lack  of  human  beings  and  the  abundance  of 
food  is  still  more  pronounced.  The  richest  and  most  fer- 
tile lands  of  the  earth  still  lie  entirely,  or  almost  entirely, 
unused,  because  their  cultivation  and  utilization  cannot 
be  undertaken  by  a  few  thousand  persons ;  here  colonies 
of  many  millions  would  be  needed  only  partly  to  master 
the  over-abundant  nature.  Such  countries  are,  among 
others,  Central  and  South  America,  an  area  of  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  square  miles.  In  Argentine  Republic, 
for  instance,  only  about  5  million  hestares  were  cultivated 
in  1892,  but  the  country  has  96  million  hectares  of  fertile 
soil  at  its  disposal.  That  soil  of  South  America  that  is 
fit  for  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  but  still  lies  fallow,  is 
estimated  at  200  million  hectares  at  least,  while  the 
United  States,  Austria,  Hungary,  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, Germany  and  France  altogether  have  cultivated 
only  about  105  million  hectares  for  the  raising  of  grain. 
About  40  years  ago,  Carey  asserted  that  the  valley  of  the 
Orinoco  alone,  having  a  length  of  360  miles,  might  pro- 
duce sufficient  nourishment  to  feed  the  entire  human 
race.  If  we  accept  but  half  of  this  statement,  an  abun- 
dance still  remains.  At  any  rate,  both  Americas  alone, 
could  feed  many  times  the  number  of  persons  living  on 
the  earth  at  present.  The  nutritive  value  of  a  territory 


*This  is  especally  true  of  Germany  also.  Notwithstanding  the 
steadv  increase  of  the  population,  emigration  has  steadily  decreased. 
In  1891,  120,089  persons  emigrated;  in  1907,  only  31,696.  On  the 
other  hand,  immigration  has  increased,  because  there  was  a  scarcity 
of  labor  power  in  several  branches  of  industry.  In  1000,  757*151  per- 
sons immigrated,  in  1905,  1,007,149. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  491 

planted  with  banana  trees  yield  12  to  20  times  its  seed; 
rice,  in  its  native  soil,  yields  80  to  100  times  and  corn  250 
to  300  times  its  seed.  In  some  regions,  for  instance  in 
the  Philippine  Islands,  the  productivity  of  rice  is  esti- 
mated at  400  times  its  seed.  Wtih  all  these  articles  of 
food  it  is,  moreover,  a  matter  of  importance,  to  make  them 
as  nourishing  as  possible  by  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  prepared.  In  matters  of  nutrition  chemistry  has  an 
inexhaustible  field  for  development. 

Central  America  and  South  America,  especially  Brazil, 
abound  with  a  luxuriance  and  fertility  that  cause  the 
marvel  and  admiration  of  travellers.  These  countries 
also  possess  a  boundless  wealth  of  ores  and  metals.  Brazil 
itself  is  almost  as  large  as  all  of  Europe,  having  8,524,000 
square  miles,  with  about  22  million  inhabitants,  as  against 
Europe's  9,887,010  square  miles,  wtih  about  430  million 
inhabitants.  But  to  the  world  these  countries  are  barely 
disclosed,  because  their  population  is  indolent,  too  few  in 
numbers  and  on  too  low  a  level  of  civilization  to  master 
the  grandeur  of  nature.  The  discoveries  of  recent  de- 
cades have  enlightened  us  in  regard  to  matters  in  Africa. 
Altho  a  great  portion  of  Central  Africa  will  never  be 
available  for  European  agriculture,  there  are  other  terri- 
tories of  a  wide  range  that  can  be  utilized  to  a  marked 
degree  as  soon  as  rational  principles  of  colonization  are 
applied.  In  Asia,  too,  there  are  wide  stretches  of  fertile 
land  that  could  provide  food  for  countless  numbers.  The 
past  has  shown  us  how,  in  regions  that  are  unfertile  and 
almost  desert  at  present,  the  climate  «an  produce  a  wealth 
of  nourishment  if  man  will  but  provide  the  soil  with 
water.  The  destruction  of  grand  water-works  and  con- 
trivances for  irrigation  in  Asia  Minor,  along  the  Tigris, 
Euphrates,  etc.,  by  cruel  wars  of  conquest  and  by  insane 
oppression  of  the  people,  have  transformed  thousands  of 
square  miles  of  fertile  land  into  a  desert.*  The  same  is 
true  of  northern  Asia,  Mexico  and  Peru.  Give  us  mill- 
ions of  civilized  human  beings  and  inexhaustible  sources 

*Kaerger  estimates  the  harvests  in  Anatolia,  even  when  the  crops 
are  poor,  at  26.40  to  30  cwt.  The  average  is  26.40  to  39  cwt. ;  on  well 
fertilized  and  irrigated  soil,  66  cwt.  (International  Agricultural 
Competition,  a  Capitalistic  Problem,  by  Professor  Dr.  Gustave  Ruh- 
land.  Berlin,  1901.) 


492         The  Question  of  Population  and  Socialism 

of  nourishment  will  be  disclosed.  The  date  palm  thrives 
in  Asia  and  Africa  in  marvellous  abundance,  and  requires 
so  little  room  that  200  of  these  trees  can  be  grown  on  one 
acre  of  land.  In  Egypt  the  durria  bears  fruit  three  thou- 
sand fold,  and  yet  this  country  is  poor.  It  is  poor,  not 
owing  to  an  excessive  population,  but  owing  to  a  system 
of  robbery  that  causes  the  desert  to  widen  and  expand 
with  each  decade.  What  marvelous  results  European 
agriculture  and  horticulture  might  obtain  in  these  coun- 
tries is  incalculable. 

The  United  States,  measured  by  the  standard  of  their 
present  agricultural  production,  could  easily  maintain  a 
population  15  or  20  times  as  large  as  the  present  one; 
that  is,  1250  to  1700  million,  instead  of  90  million.  At 
the  same  rate,  Canada  could  provide  food  for  several  hun- 
dred millions,  instead  of  for  its  six  millions.  Then  there 
is  Australia,  the  numerous  and  to  some  extent  exceeding- 
ly fertile  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Ocean,  etc.  In 
the  name  of  civilization  man  should  be  exhorted  to  multi- 
ply, not  to  decrease. 

Everywhere  it  is  the  social  institutions — the  existing 
methods  of  production  and  distribution  of  the  products — 
that  cause  misery  and  want,  not  a  too  great  number  of 
people.  A  number  of  rich  crops  in  succession  lower  the 
prices  of  food  to  such  an  extent,  that  many  a  farmer  is 
ruined  thereby.  The  lot  of  the  producers  grows  worse 
instead  of  being  improved.  At  the  present  time  a  great 
many  farmers  regard  a  good  harvest  as  a  misfortune,  be- 
cause it  lowers  the  prices.  And  such  conditions  are  sup- 
posed to  be  rational  ?  To  keep  out  the  rich  crops  of  other 
countries,  high  duties  are  imposed  on  grain,  to  make  the 
importation  of  grain  more  difficult  and  to  raise  the  price 
of  the  domestic  product.  There  is  not  a  lack  of  food,  but 
a  superabundance  of  food,  just  as  there  is  a  superabun- 
dance of  the  products  of  industry.  Just  as  millions  of 
persons  are  in  need  of  all  kinds  of  industrial  products,  but 
cannot  satisfy  their  needs  under  the  existing  conditions  of 
property  and  production,  so  millions  are  in  need  of  the 
most  essential  articles  of  food,  because  they  cannot  pay 
for  them,  altho  there  is  food  in  abundance.  The  madness 
of  such  conditions  is  obvious.  When  the  crops  are  good, 
our  speculators  in  grain  often  intentionally  allow  a  part 


The  Socialization  of  Society  493 

of  it  to  go  to  waste  and  ruin,  because  they  know  that  the 
price  increases  at  the  same  rate  at  which  the  supply 
diminishes.  And  with  all  this,  we  should  be  in  fear  of 
over-population?  In  Russia,  southern  Europe  and  else- 
where, hundreds  of  thousands  of  hundredweights  of  grain 
are  destroyed,  because  there  is  a  lack  of  appropriate  store- 
houses and  means  of  transportation.  Many  million  hun- 
dred-weights of  food  are  wasted  annually,  because  the 
provisions  for  gathering  in  the  crops  are  imperfect  and 
insufficient,  or  because  there  is  a  lack  of  hands  at  the 
decisive  time.  Many  a  granary,  many  a  replenished 
barn,  indeed,  entire  farms  are  burned  down,  because  the 
insurance  premiums  heighten  the  profits.  Food  is  de- 
stroyed for  the  same  reasons  that  cause  people  to  sink 
ships  with  their  entire  crews.*  Our  military  drills  cause 
the  destruction  of  large  crops  each  year.  The  cost  of  a 
single  manoeuvre,  lasting  a  few  days  only,  amounts  to 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  marks,*  altho  the  estimates 
are  very  moderate,  and  there  are  a  number  of  such 
manoeuvres  annually.  For  the  same  purpose  entire  vil- 
lages have  been  razed  and  large  areas  are  withdrawn 
from  agriculture. 

We  must  not  forget  that  to  all  the  sources  we  have 
enumerated,  the  ocean  must  be  added,  whose  surface  is 
to  the  area  of  the  earth  as  18  to  7.  The  surface  of  the 
water  is,  accordingly,  two  and  a  half  times  as  large  as  that 
of  the  land,  and  is  still  awaiting  a  rational  utilization  of 
its  enormous  wealth  of  food.  The  future,  then,  opens 
up  a  vista  very  different  from  the  sombre  picture  drawn 
for  us  by  our  Malthusians. 

Who    can     say    when    our    chemical,   physical     and 


*Even  at  the  time  of  St.  Basil  (died  379),  similar  conditions  must 
have  existed,  for  he  calls  out  to  the  rich :  "wretches,  what  reply  wil! 
you  make  to  the  divine  Judge?  You  cover  the  nakedness  of  your 
walls  with  tapestry,  but  you  do  not  cover  with  clothes  the  nakedness 
of  man.  You  deck  your  horses  with  costly,  soft  blankets,  but  you 
despise  your  brother  who  is  clad  in  rags.  You  suffer  your  grain  in 
the  barns  and  granaries  to  rot  and  to  be  eaten  by  rats,  and  do  not 
even  cast  a  glance  at  those  who  have  no  bread." 

Moralizing  has  never  yet  availed  with  the  ruling  classes  and  never 
will.  Let  the  social  institutions  be  changed  so  that  no  one  can  act 
unfairly  toward  his  fellowmen,  and  the  world  will  be  well  off. 


494       The  Question  of  Population  and  Socialism 

physiological  knowledge  will  have  reached  their. limit? 
Who  could  venture  to  predict  what  gigantic  undertak- 
ings future  mankind  will  carry  out  to  bring  about  marked 
changes  in  the  climates  of  various  countries  and  the  utili- 
zation of  their  soil? 

Even  to-day,  under  the  capitalistic  system  of  society, 
we  see  undertakings  executed  that  would  have  appeared 
impossible  and  insane  a  century  ago.  Broad  isthmuses 
are  cut  thru  and  oceans  connected ;  tunnels,  many  miles 
long,  connect  countries  that  are  separated  by  the  highest 
mountains ;  others  are  dug  under  the  bottom  of  the  sea 
to  shorten  distances,  and  to  avoid  disturbances  and  dan- 
gers that  occur  where  countries  are  separated  by  the  sea. 
Where,  then,  might  one  say:  "thus  far  and  no  further?" 
Not  only  must  the  "law  of  decrease  of  the  productivity  of 
the  soil"  be  answered  in  the  negative,  it  must  be  reas- 
serted that  there  is  an  abundance  of  cultivatable  soil,  that 
will  require  millions  of  human  beings  for  its  cultivation. 

If  all  these  tasks  of  civilization  were  to  be  undertaken 
at  the  same  time,  we  would  not  have  too  many  people, 
but  too  few.  Humanity  must  still  multiply  considerably 
to  do  justice  to  all  the  tasks  that  are  awaiting  it.  The 
soil  is  far  from  being  cultivated  as  it  might  be,  and  almost 
three-quarters  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  are  still  unculti- 
vated, because  there  are  not  enough  people  to  undertake 
its  cultivation.  The  relative  excess  of  population  that 
to-day  is  continually  produced  by  the  capitalistic  system 
to  the  detriment  of  the  working  class  and  of  society,  will 
prove  a  blessing  on  a  higher  level  of  civilization.  A 
numerous  population  is  not  a  hindrance  to  progress.  It 
is,  on  the  contrary,  a  means  to  advance  progress,  just  like 
the  present  over-production  of  commodities  and  food,  the 
disruption  of  marriage  by  the  employment  of  women, 
children  in  industry  and  the  expropriation  of  the  middle 
class  by  the  large  capitalists,  are  the  preliminary  condi- 
tions of  a  higher  stage  of  civilization. 

5. — Social  Conditions  and  Reproductive  Ability. 

The  other  side  of  the  question  is :  do  people  multiply 
indefinitely,  and  do  they  wish  to?  In  order  to  prove  the 
enormous  reproductive  ability  of  man,  the  Malthusians 


The  Socialization  of  Society  495 

like  to  point  to  the  abnormal  cases  of  some  families  or 
peoples.  But  these  examples  do  not  prove  anything. 
There  are  other  cases  where,  regardless  of  favorable  con- 
ditions of  existence,  complete  sterility  sets  in,  or  the  re- 
productive ability  is  very  slight.  It  is  surprising  how 
quickly  wealthy  families  often  die  out.  Altho  the  condi- 
tions for  an  increase  of  the  population  are  more  favorable 
in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other  country,  and  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  persons  in  the  prime  of  life  emi- 
grate into  the  United  States  every  year,  the  population 
doubles  only  once  in  thirty  years.  The  claim  that  popu- 
lations double  once  in  twelve  or  twenty  years  is  not  born 
out  by  the  facts  anywhere. 

As  has  already  been  indicated  by  the  quotations  from 
Virchow  and  Marx,  the  population  multiplies  most  rapidly 
where  it  is  poorest,  because,  as  Virchow  correctly  says, 
beside  drink,  sexual  intercourse  forms  their  only  enjoy- 
ment. When  Gregory  VII  forced  celibacy  upon  the 
clergy,  the  clergy  of  lower  rank  of  the  Diocese  of  May- 
ence, — as  previously  mentioned, — complained  that  they 
did  not  have  all  kinds  of  enjoyments  like  the  prelates,  but 
that  their  only  joy  was  woman.  Lack  of  a  variety  of  oc- 
cupations may  also  account  for  it  that  the  marriages  of 
the  rural  clergy  are  usually  so  richly  blessed  with  chil- 
dren. It  cannot  be  disputed,  furthermore,  that  the  poor- 
est districts  in  Germany,  the  Silesian  Eulengebirge,  the 
Lausitz,  the  Erzgebirge  and  Fichtelgebirge,  the  Forest  of 
Thuringia,  the  Harz,  etc. — districts  in  which  the  potato 
constitutes  the  chief  article  of  food,  are  at  the  same  time 
the  most  densely  populated.  It  is  furthermore  certain 
that  the  sexual  impulse  is  particularly  strongly  devel- 
oped with  persons  afflicted  with  consumption,  and  such 
persons  often  beget  children  in  a  stage  of  physical  decline 
in  which  this  seems  almost  impossible. 

It  is  a  law  of  nature,  as  expressed  in  the  utterances  of 
Herbert  Spencer  and  Laing,  which  we  have  quoted,  to 
supply  in  quantity  what  is  lacking  in  quality.  The  most 
highly  developed  and  strongest  animals,  lion,  elephant, 
camel,  etc.,  our  domestic  animals,  as  horse,  donkey,  cow 
bring  forth  but  few  young,  while  animals  of  a  lower  order 
multiply  in  inverse  ratio,  as  all  kinds  of  insects,  most  fish, 
etc.,  and  also  the  smaller  mammals,  like  rabbits,  rats, 


496        The  Question  of  Population  and  Socialism 

mice,  etc.  Darwin  has  shown  that  certain  species  of  ani- 
mals, for  instance  the  elephant,  lose  their  fecundity  when 
they  are  captured  and  tamed  by  man.  All  this  proves 
that  altered  conditions  of  existence  and  the  resulting 
changed  mode  of  life  have  a  decisive  influence  on  repro- 
ductiive  ability.  .... 

Strange  to  say,  the  Darwinians  share  the  fear  of  over- 
population, and  our  modern  Malthusians  lean  on  their 
authority.  The  Darwinians  seem  to  be  unfortunate  as 
soon  as  they  seek  to  apply  their  theories  to  man,  because 
they  employ  roughly  empirical  methods  and  do  not  take 
into  consideration  that  man,  altho  the  most  highly  devel- 
oped animal,  is  distinguished  from  animals  by  the  fact 
that  he  has  learned  to  understand  the  laws  of  nature,  and 
may  consciously  and  intelligently  apply  these  laws. 

The  theory  of  the  struggle  for  existence,  the  doctrine 
that  the  germs  of  new  life  exist  in  a  far  greater  measure 
than  could  be  maintained  by  the  existing  means  of  sub- 
sistence, would  be  equally  applicable  to  man,  if  human 
beings,  instead  of  exerting  their  brain  and  employing  tech- 
nics for  the  conscious  utilization  of  land  and  water,  would 
graze  like  cattle  or  would  yield,  like  monkeys,  to  an  un- 
bridled satisfaction  of  their  sexual  desires,  thereby  re- 
verting to  monkeys.  Incidentally,  be  it  noted,  that  be- 
side human  beings,  monkeys  are  the  only  creatures  with 
whom  the  sexual  impulse  is  not  limited  to  certain  periods. 
This  alone  furnishes  a  striking  proof  of  the  close  relation- 
ship between  the  two.  But,  altho  closely  related,  they 
are  not  identical.  They  cannot  be  placed  upon  the  same 
level  or  measured  by  the  same  standards. 

It  is  true  that  so  far,  owing  to  the  conditions  of  prop- 
erty and  production,  the  struggle  for  existence  has  pre- 
vailed, and  still  prevails,  for  individual  human  beings,  and 
that  many  were  unable  to  obtain  the  needful  means  of 
subsistence.  But  this  was  so,  not  because  the  means 
were  wanting,  but  because  social  conditions  withheld  the 
means  from  them  in  the  midst  of  plenty.  It  is  a  mistake 
to  assume  that  because  conditions  have  been  such  until 
now,  they  must  always  and  unalterably  remain  so.  This 
is  the  point  where  Darwinians  make  a  great  mistake. 
They  study  biology  and  anthropology,  but  they  fail  to 
study  sociology,  and  thoughtlessly  become  the  followers 


The  Socialization  of  Society  497 

of  bourgeois  ideologists.    Thus  they  arrive  at  false  con- 
clusions. 

The  sexual  impulse  is  perennial  in  man.  It  is  his  strong- 
est impulse,  and  must  be  satisfied  if  his  health  is  not  to 
suffer.  As  a  rule  this  impulse  is  strongest  with  healthy, 
normally  developed  human  beings,  just  like  a  hearty  ap- 
petite and  good  digestion  are  proofs  of  a  healthy  stomach 
and  are  essential  to  a  healthy  body.  But  satisfaction  of 
the  sexual  impulse  and  the  procreation  of  children  are 
not  one  and  the  same  thing.  Many  are  the  theories  that 
have  been  propounded  in  regard  to  the  fecundity  of  man. 
On  the  whole,  we  are  still  groping  in  the  dark  concern- 
ing these  important  questions,  mainly  because,  for  cen- 
turies, a  foolish  reticence  has  prevailed  that  prevented 
an  investigation  of  the  laws  of  the  origin  and  develop- 
ment of  man  and  a  study  of  human  procreation  and  evo- 
lution. Only  gradually  will  our  conception  change  on 
this  subject,  and  it  is  highly  important  that  they  should. 
Some  claim  that  higher  mental  development  and  strenu- 
ous intellectual  activity,  in  fact  all  increased  nervous 
activity,  has  a  repressing  effect  on  the  sexual  impulse  and 
diminishes  the  productive  ability.  By  others  this  is  de- 
nied. People  point  to  the  fact  that  the  well-to-do  classes 
generally  have  fewer  children,  and  that  this  cannot  be 
ascribed  to  preventive  measures  only.  It  is  certain  that 
a  strenuous  mental  activity  has  a  repressing  influence  on 
the  sexual  impulse,  but  it  cannot  be  claimed  that  such 
activity  is  carried  on  by  a  majority  of  our  propertied 
class.  Excessive  physical  exertion  also  has  a  repressing 
effect,  but  any  kind  of  excessive  exertion  is  harmful  and 
therefore  not  to  be  desired. 

Others  assert  that  the  mode  of  life,  especially  the 
nourishment,  beside  certain  physical  conditions  on  the 
part  of  the  woman,  have  a  decisive  influence  on  procrea- 
tion and  conception.  The  food,  they  claim,  also  influ- 
ences procreation  among  animals  more  than  any  other 
factor.  Here,  indeed,  the  determining  factor  may  be 
found.  The  influence  of  the  nature  of  food  on  the  organ- 
isms of  certain  animals,  has  been  revealed  in  a  surprising- 
manner  among  bees.  By  feeding  the  larvae  on  special 
food,  they  can  produce  a  queen  at  will.  The  bees  accord- 
ingly are  further  advanced  in  their  recognition  of  the 


498      The  Question  of  Population  and  Socialism 

development  of  sex  than  man.  Probably  they  have  not 
been  preached  to  for  thousands  of  years  that  it  is  "inde- 
cent" and  "immoral"  to  concern  one's  self  with  sexual 
matters. 

It  is  also  known  that  plants  grown  in  rich  and  well 
manured  soil  thrive  luxuriantly,  but  do  not  yield  seed.  It 
is  hardly  to  be  doubted  that,  with  human  beings,  also  the 
nature  of  food  influences  the  composition  of  the  male 
sperm  and  the  fecundity  of  the  female  egg,  and  so  it  may 
be  that  the  reproductive  power  of  a  population  depends 
largely  upon  its  food.  There  are  other  factors  besides, 
whose  nature  is  but  slightly  known. 

In  the  future  one  factor  will  be  decisive  in  regard  to 
the  question  of  population :  the  higher,  freer  position  of 
woman.  As  a  rule,  intelligent  and  energetic  women  are 
not  inclined  to  regard  a  number  of  children  as  a  "God- 
send," and  to  spend  the  best  years  of  their  lives  in  a  con- 
dition of  pregnancy,  or  with  babes  at  their  breasts.  Even 
at  present,  most  women  have  an  aversion  against  a  too 
numerous  progeny,  and  this  aversion  is  likely  to  increase 
rather  than  decrease,  regardless  of  the  care  that  a  Social- 
istic society  will  bestow  upon  pregnant  women  and 
mothers.  This  is  the  main  reason  why,  in  our  opinion, 
the  increase  of  population  is  likely  to  progress  more 
slowly  in  Socialistic  society  than  it  does  in  bourgeois 
society. 

Our  Malthusians  assuredly  have  no  cause  to  rack  their 
brains  in  regard  to  the  increase  of  population  in  the 
future.  Until  now,  nations  have  been  ruined  by  a  diminu- 
tion of  their  numbers,  but  never  yet  by  an  excess.  In  a 
society,  living  according  to  natural  laws,  the  number  of 
the  population  will  ultimately  be  regulated  without  harm- 
ful abstinence,  or  unnatural  preventive  measures.  Karl 
Marx  will  be  vindicated  on  this  subject  also.  His  con- 
ception, that  every  economic  period  of  development  has 
its  special  law  of  population,  will  prove  true  under  the 
rule  of  Socialism. 

In  a  book  on  "The  Artificial  Limitation  of  Progeny/' 
H.  Ferdy  sets  forth  the  following  opinion :  "The  strong 
opposition  of  Socialists  to  Malthusianism  is  a  piece  of 
roguery.  The  rapid  increase  of  the  population  favors 
pauperization  of  the  masses  and  fosters  discontent.  If  the 


The  Socialization  of  Society  499 

over-population  could  be  checked,  the  spread  of  Social- 
ism  would  come  to  an  end,  and  the  Socialist  state  with  all 
its  splendor  would  be  buried  forever."  Here  we  behold 
Malthusianism  as  a  new  weapon  for  combatting  So- 
cialism.* 

Dr.  Adolf  Wagner  is  one  of  those  who  are  in  fear  of 
over-population,  and,  therefore,  favor  restriction  of  the 
freedom  of  marriage  and  freedom  of  settlement,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  workingmen.  He  bewails  the  fact 
that  workingmen  marry  too  young,  as  compared  with  the 
middle  classes.  He  and  others  holding  the  same  views, 
overlook  that  the  male  members  of  the  middle  class  do 
not  attain  a  position  until  later  in  life,  that  enables  them 
to  support  a  family  according  to  their  standard  of  life. 
But  they  seek  recompense  for  this  renunciation  with 
prostitution.  If  marriage  is  made  more  difficult  for  the 
workingmen  also,  they  will  be  driven  upon  the  same 
devious  path.  But,  then,  do  not  let  us  complain  of  the 
results,  and  cry  out  at  the  "decline  of  ethics  and  moral- 
ity/' Neither  let  us  grow  indignant,  then,  if  men  and 
women, — since  the  natural  impulses  reside,  in  women  as 
in  men, — if  men  and  women  satisfy  their  natural  impulse 
in  illegitimate  relations,  and  if  hosts  of  illegitimate  chil- 
dren populate  town  and  country.  But  the  views  of  Wag- 
ner, and  those  who  agree  with  him,  are  also  averse  to  the 
interests  of  the  bourgeoisie  and  to  the  interests  of  our 
economic  development  that  requires  a  large  supply  of 
"hands"  in  order  to  possess  forces  that  enable  competi- 
tion on  the  world  market.  By  petty,  shortsighted  sug- 
gestions, born  of  retrogressive  and  philistine  minds,  the 


*The  immense  ignorance  of  the  Socialist-killer,  Ferdy,  is  most 
clearly  seen  from  the  following  sentences,  perpetrated  on  page  40  of 
his  book :  "The  Socialists  will  go  further  in  their  demands  than  the 
Neo-Malthusians.  They  will  demand  that  the  minimum  wage  be  so 
fixed  that  every  workingman  can  beget  the  largest  possible  number 
of  children  according  to  the  social  supply  of  food.  As  soon  as  Social- 
ism has  drawn  its  ultimate  conclusions  and  private  property  has  been 
abolished,  even  the  most  stupid  would  soon  begin  to  question:  why 
should  I  work  longer  and  harder  because  my  neighbor  chooses  to 
thrust  a  dozen  new  members  into  society?" 

It  would  be  well  to  know  the  A  B  C  of  Socialism  before  venturing 
to  write  about  it  and  such  utter  nonsense  as  that ! 


Conclusion 

evils  of  the  age  cannot  be  cured.  At  the  dawn  of  the 
twentieth  century  there  is  no  class  and  no  power  of  the 
state  that  is  strong  enough  to  retard  the  natural  evolu- 
tion of  society.  Every  attempt  is  bound  to  fail.  The 
current  of  evolution  is  so  strong  that  it  overcomes  every 
obstacle.  Not  backward,  but  "forward,"  is  the  word,  and 
he  who  believes  in  retarding  progress  fools  himself. 

In  Socialistic  society,  when  mankind  will  be  placed 
upon  a  natural  basis,  and  will  be  truly  free,  man  will  con- 
sciously guide  his  own  development.  In  all  preceding 
epochs,  man  acted  in  regard  to  production  and  distribu- 
tion, and  in  regard  to  the  increase  of  population,  without 
any  knowledge  of  their  underlying  laws;  he,  therefore, 
acted  unconsciously.  In  the  new  society  man  will  act 
consciously  and  methodically,  knowing  the  laws  of  his 
own  development. 

Socialism  is  science  applied  to  all  realms  of  human 
activity. 

Conclusion. 

We  have  shown,  in  the  course  of  our  argumentation, 
that  the  realization  of  Socialism  does  not  imply  arbitrary 
destruction  and  construction,  but  a  process  of  historical 
evolution.  All  factors  active  in  the  process  of  destruc- 
tion, on  the  one  hand,  and  in  the  process  of  construction 
on  the  other,  act  as  they  are  bound  to  act.  Neither  "bril- 
liant statesmen'*'  nor  "demagogues  who  incite  the  peo- 
ple," can  direct  matters  at  their  will.  They  believe  that 
they  are  pushing,  and  are  being  pushed,  themselves.  But 
the  day  of  fulfilment  is  not  distant. 

In  the  course  of  these  expositions,  we  have  frequently 
referred  to  an  over-production  of  goods  that  leads  to 
crises,  a  phenomenon  peculiar  to  bourgeois  society,  that 
was  not  met  with  at  any  previous  stage  of  development. 

But  bourgeois  society  does  not  only  create  an  over- 
production of  goods  and  workers,  but  also  an  over-pro- 
duction of  intelligence.  Germany  is  the  classic  land 
where  this  over-production  of  intelligence  takes  place  on 
a  large  scale,  intelligence  that  the  bourgeois  world  no 
longer  knows  how  to  employ.  A  condition  that  has  for 
centuries  been  regarded  as  a  misfortune  to  German  devel- 
opment, has  been  instrumental  in  producing  this  phe- 


The  Socialization  of  Society  501 

nomenon.  It  was  the  great  number  of  small  states  that 
impeded  the  development  of  capitalism  on  a  large  scale. 
The  larpe  number  of  small  states  decentralized  the  intel- 
lectual life  of  the  nation  by  creating  many  small  centers 
of  intellectual  life,  that  exercised  their  influence  upon  the 
whole  country.  In  comparison  with  a  single  central  gov- 
ernment the  numerous  states  required  a  very  large  official 
apparatus,  for  whose  members  a  higher  education  was 
needful.  So  a  larger  number  of  high  schools  and  univer- 
sities sprang  up  than  in  any  other  European  country. 
The  ambition  and  jealousy  of  the  various  governments 
played  an  important  part  in  this  development.  It  was 
the  same  when  some  of  the  governments  began  to  intro- 
duce obligatory  public  education.  In  these  instances  the 
desire  not  to  be  excelled  by  the  neighboring  state  has  had 
a  good  effect.  The  demand  for  intelligence  rose  when 
increasing  education,  hand  in  hand  with  the  material  ad- 
vance of  the  bourgeoisie,  awoke  a  desire  for  political 
action,  for  popular  representation  and  self-government. 
The  governmental  bodies  were  small  and  represented 
only  small  countries  and  districts,  but  they  caused  the 
sons  of  the  upper  classes  to  covet  seats  in  them  and  to 
adapt  their  education  accordingly. 

As  it  was  with  science,  so  with  art.  No  other  coun- 
try of  Europe  has,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  so  large  a 
number  of  artists,  so  many  art-schools  and  technical 
schools,  so  many  museums  and  art  collections,  as  Ger- 
many. Other  countries  may  have  a  greater  accumula- 
tion of  art  in  their  capitals,  but  no  other  country  pos- 
sesses such  a  distribution  of  art  thruout  its  entire  realm. 
Only  Italy  can  vie  with  it. 

This  entire  development  led  to  a  deepening  of  the  Ger- 
man intellect.  The  absence  of  great  political  struggles 
gave  people  time  and  leisure,  as  it  were,  to  lead  a  contem- 
plative life.  While  other  nations  wrestled  for  the  con- 
trol of  the  world  market,  divided  the  earth  among  them- 
selves, and  carried  on  great  internal  political  struggles, 
the  Germans  quietly  remained  at  home,  dreaming  and 
philosophizing.  But  this  dreaming  and  philosophiz- 
ing, favored  by  a  climate  that  necessitated  hard  work  and 
a  domestic  life,  gave  the  Germans  that  keen,  observing 
intellect  that  distinguished  them  after  they  had  awak- 


5O2  Conclusion 

ened.  While  the  English  bourgeoisie  had  won  a  deter- 
mining influence  over  the  state  as  early  as  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  the  French  bourgeoisie 
had  come  into  power  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, it  was  not  until  1848  that  the  German  bourgeoisie 
succeeded  in  winning  a  very  modest  influence  over  the 
powers  of  the  state.  But  the  year  1848  was  the  year  of 
birth  of  the  German  bourgeoisie  as  a  self-conscious  class, 
that  entered  the  arena  as  an  independent,  political  party, 
represented  by  "liberalism."  Here,  too,  the  peculiar 
nature  of  German  development  manifested  itself.  The 
leading  men  were  not  manufacturers,  merchants,  men  of 
commerce  and  finance,  but  chiefly  professors,  writers, 
jurists  and  doctors  of  all  academic  faculties.  They  were 
the  German  ideologists,  and  their  work  was  shaped 
accordingly.  After  1848  the  bourgeoisie  was,  for  the 
time  being,  silenced  politically;  but  they  employed  the 
time  of  political  graveyard  tranquility  during  the  fifties 
to  promote  their  task  all  the  more  thoroly.  The  out- 
break of  the  Austro-Italian  war,  and  the  beginning  of  the 
Regency  in  Prussia,  caused  the  bourgeoisie  again  to 
reach  out  after  political  power.  The  movement  for  na- 
tional unity  ("Nationalverein")  began.  The  bourgeoisie 
was  too  far  developed  to  tolerate  any  longer  the  numer- 
ous political  barriers,  that  were  also  economic  barriers, 
between  the  various  states.  They  threatened  to  become 
revolutionary.  Bismarck  grasped  the  situation,  and 
made  use  of  it  in  his  way  to  reconcile  the  interests  of  the 
bourgeoisie  with  the  interests  of  the  Prussian  monarchy, 
toward  which  the  bourgeoisie  had  never  been  hostile,  as 
it  feared  the  revolution  and  the  masses.  Finally  the 
barriers  fell  that  had  prevented  its  material  development. 
Aided  by  Germany's  wealth  in  coal  and  minerals,  and  by 
the  presence  of  an  intelligent,  but  easily  contented  work- 
ing class,  the  bourgeoisie,  within  a  few  years,  attained 
such  a  gigantic  development,  as  has  not  been  attained  by 
the  bourgeoisie  of  any  other  country  in  an  equally  short 
time,  with  the  exception  of  the  United  States.  Thus  Ger- 
many quickly  came  to  hold  the  second  place  in  Europe 
as  an  industrial  and  commercial  state,  and  she  is  anxious 
to  obtain  the  first. 


The  Socialization  of  Society  503 

But  this  rapid  material  development  has  its  dark  side 
also.  The  system  of  seclusion  that  had  existed  among 
all  German  states,  until  national  unity  was  established, 
had  insured  the  existence  of  a  very  numerous  class  of 
small  mechanics  and  farmers.  When  all  protective  bar- 
riers were  suddenly  torn  down,  this  class  was  confronted 
by  the  unbridled  development  of  the  capitalistic  process 
of  production.  As  a  result  their  position  became  a 
desperate  one.  The  period  of  prosperity  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventies  made  the  danger  appear  less  great 
at  first,  but  it  became  all  the  more  noticeable  when  the 
crisis  set  in.  The  bourgeoisie  had  utilized  the  period 
of  prosperity  for  its  fullest  development,  and  by  excessive 
production  created  a  ten-fold  pressure.  From  now  on 
the  chasm  between  the  propertied  and  the  non-propertied 
classes  was  rapidly  and  tremendously  widened.  This 
process  of  absorption  and  decomposition,  that  is  accom- 
plished more  and  more  rapidly,  favored  by  the  increase 
of  material  power  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  a  decline  of 
the  power  of  resistance  on  the  other,  is  intensifying  the 
distress  of  entire  strata  of  the  population.  They  find  their 
position  becoming  more  and  more  precarious  and  their 
ruin  certain. 

In  this  desperate  struggle  many  seek  salvation  in  a 
change  of  their  profession.  The  old  people  cannot  ac- 
complish this  change  any  more,  and  only  in  rare  cases  are 
they  able  to  leave  a  fortune  to  their  children,  so  they 
make  desperate  efforts  and  employ  their  last  means  to 
obtain  for  their  sons  and  daughters  positions  with  a  fixed 
income,  that  require  no  capital.  These  are  the  civil 
service  positions  in  the  empire,  states  and  municipalities, 
teaching,  positions  connected  with  the  postal  and  railway 
service,  the  higher  positions  in  the  service  of  the  bour- 
geoisie in  offices,  stores  and  factories  as  clerks,  man- 
agers, chemists,  technicists,  engineers,  constructors,  etc., 
and  also  the  so-called  liberal  professions:  jurists,  physi- 
cians, theologians,  writers,  artists,  architects,  teachers, 
etc. 

Thousands  upon  thousands  who  would  formerly  have 
taken  up  a  trade,  now  seek  professional  positions,  be- 
cause there  is  no  longer  any  possibility  of  maintaining 


504  Conclusion 

an  independent  and  decent  livelihood  by  practicing  a 
trade.  All  strive  for  learning  and  a  higher  education. 
High  schools,  colleges  and  polytechnical  institutes  spring 
up  like  mushrooms,  and  the  existing  ones  are  over- 
crowded. In  the  same  measure  the  number  of  students 
at  the  universities  increases,  and  the  number  of  scholars 
in  physical  and  chemical  laboratories,  in  art  schools,  in 
trade  and  commerical  schools,  in  the  higher  institutions 
of  learning  for  women,  etc.  All  departments,  without 
exception,  are  over-crowded,  and  the  stream  is  still  rising. 
New  demands  are  constantly  being  made  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  colleges  and  higher  institutions  of  learning, 
to  accommodate  the  large  number  of  pupils  and  students. 
Officials  and  private  persons  issue  warnings  upon  warn- 
ings, now  against  the  study  of  one  subject  and  then 
against  the  study  of  another.  Even  theology,  (that  for- 
merly threatened  to  dry  out  on  account  of  a  lack  of  can- 
didates) now  receives  its  share  of  blessings  from  the  abun- 
dance and  finds  its  positions  filled  again.  "I  will  preach 
belief  in  ten  thousand  gods  and  devils,  if  required,  only 
give  me  a  position  that  will  support  me,"  is  the  general 
cry.  Sometimes  the  respective  ministers  even  refuse  to 
give  their  consent  to  the  establishment  of  new  educa- 
tional institutions,  "because  the  ones  in  existence  amply 
supply  the  demand  for  candidates  in  all  departments." 

This  state  of  affairs  is  rendered  more  severe  by  the 
fact  that  the  competitive  and  destructive  struggle  of  the 
bourgeoisie  among  themselves,  compels  many  of  their 
sons  to  seek  public  positions.  Moreover,  the  steadily 
growing  standing  army,  with  its  mass  of  officers,  whose 
promotion  is  exceedingly  slow  during  a  long  period  of 
peace,  causes  many  of  them  to  be  pensioned  during  the 
best  years  of  their  lives,  and  these,  aided  by  the  state, 
seek  employment  in  all  kinds  of  official  positions.  The 
great  number  of  candidates  for  civil  service  positions, 
from  lower  grades  of  the  army,  rob  other  strata  of  their 
living.  To  this  must,  furthermore,  be  added  that  the 
swarm  of  imperial  state  and  municipal  officials  of  all  de- 
grees, educate,  and  must  educate,  their  children  mainly 
for  professions,  like  the  ones  enumerated  above.  The 
social  position,  education  and  requirements  of  these 
classes  make  it  necessary  to  withhold  their  children  from 


The  Socialization  of  Society  505 

the  so-called  lower  occupations,  but  these,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  are  over-crowded  also.  The  system  of  one-year 
voluntary  service  in  the  army,  that,  upon  the  attainment 
of  a  certain  degree  of  education  and  a  certain  material 
sacrifice,  permits  young  men  to  complete  their  military 
service  in  one  year  instead  of  in  two  or  three,  also  in- 
creases the  number  of  candidates  for  offices  and  positions. 
There  are,  especially,  many  sons  of  wealthy  peasants  who 
do  not  care  to  return  to  their  native  villages  and  the  pro- 
fessions of  their  fathers. 

As  a  result  of  all  these  circumstances,  the  proletariat 
of  scholars  and  artists  and  of  the  so-called  liberal  profes- 
sions, is  more  numerous  in  Germany  than  in  any  other 
country.  This  proletariat  is  constantly  increasing,  and 
is  bearing  the  fermentation  and  dissatisfaction  with  exist- 
ing conditions  into  the  highest  strata  of  society.  This 
youth  is  aroused  and  incited  to  a  criticism  of  the  existing 
order,  and  helps  to  hasten  the  general  decomposition.  So 
these  conditions  have  brought  about  that  the  German 
Social  Democracy  took  the  leadership  in  the  gigantic 
struggle  of  the  future.  German  Socialists  were  the  ones 
to  discover  the  laws  underlying  modern  social  develop- 
ment, and  to  demonstrate  scientifically  that  Socialism 
will  be  the  coming  form  of  society.  Karl  Marx  and 
Frederick  Engels  took  the  lead.  They  were  followed  by 
Ferdinand  Lassalle,whose  agitation  fired  the  masses.  Ger- 
man Socialists  have  also  been  the  pioneers  of  Socialistic 
thought  among  the  workingmen  of  other  countries. 

Half  a  century  ago,  Buckle  wrote,  as  a  result  of  his 
studies  of  German  education  and  culture,  that  Germany 
possessed  a  number  of  the  greatest  scholars,  but  that  in 
no  other  country,  the  gulf  between  the  class  of  scholars 
and  the  mass  of  the  people  were  equally  great.  This  was 
true  of  Germany,  as  long  as  science  was  limited  to  that 
circle  of  scholars  who  stood  aloof  from  that  practical  life. 
But,  since  Germany  has  been  revolutionized  economi- 
cally, science  has  been  pressed  into  the  service  of  prac- 
tical life.  Science  itself  became  practical.  People  began 
to  recognize  that  science  attained  its  full  value  only  when 
it  helped  to  promote  the  comforts  of  life.  The  develop- 
ment of  capitalistic  production  on  a  large  scale  forced 


506  Conclusion 

this  recognition  upon  us.  As  a  result,  all  branches  of 
knowledge  have  been  democratized  in  Germany  during 
the  last  decade.  The  great  number  of  young  men  trained 
for  the  practice  of  learned  professions,  have  helped  to 
carry  science  among  the  people,  and  the  general  educa- 
tion, that  has  attained  a  higher  degree  in  Germany,  than 
in  most  other  countries,  has  disseminated  many  products 
of  the  intellect  among  the  masses.  But  the  Socialist 
movement,  especially,  with  its  literature,  its  newspapers, 
its  societies  and  meetings,  its  parliamentary  representa- 
tion and  its  constantly  practiced  criticism  on  all  fields  of 
public  life,  has  considerably  raised  the  intellectual  level 
of  the  masses. 

The  exceptional  laws  enacted  against  the  Social 
Democrats  (from  1878  to  1890)  have  in  no  wise  changed 
this.  They  merely  hemmed  in  the  movement  to  some 
extent,  and  slackened  its  pace.  But  they  also  helped  to 
make  the  movement  more  profound,  and  to  arouse  much 
bitterness  against  the  ruling  classes  and  the  powers  of 
the  state.  The  final  repeal  of  the  exceptional  laws  was 
only  due  to  the  development  of  the  Social  Democratic 
Party,  under  these  laws,  and  to  the  economic  develop- 
ment of  the  nation.  Thus  the  movement  is  progressing, 
as  it  must  progress,  under  the  given  circumstances. 

As  the  Socialist  movement  has  progressed  in  Ger- 
many, it  has  also  progressed,  beyond  all  expectations,  in 
other  states  of  the  civilized  world.  The  international 
congresses  of  labor,  whose  attendance  is  constantly  in- 
creasing, furnish  an  eloquent  proof  of  this  progress. 

So  the  great  war  of  the  minds  has  begun  in  all  civilized 
countries  of  the  world,  and  is  being  waged  with  the 
greatest  ardor.  Beside  the  social  sciences,  the  wide  realm 
of  the  natural  sciences,  hygiene,  history  and  philosophy, 
furnish  the  weapons  for  this  war.  The  foundations  of 
existing  conditions  are  attached  on  all  sides,  and  the 
strongest  blows  are  directed  against  the  pillars  of  the  old 
regime.  Revolutionary  thoughts  penetrate  the  most  con- 
servative circles,  and  create  confusion  in  the  camp  of  our 
enemies.  Artisans  and  scholars,  farmers  and  artists,  mer- 
chants and  officers,  even  manufacturers  and  bankers,  in 
short,  men  of  all  positions,  join  the  workingmen,  who 


The  Socialization  of  Society  507 

form  the  bulk  of  that  great  army  that  is  striving  for  vic- 
tory, and  is  bound  to  win  it.  All  mutually  support  and 
supplement  each  other. 

Woman,  too,  and  especially  the  proletarian  woman, 
has  been  called  upon,  not  to  lag  behind  in  'this  struggle 
that  is  being  fought  for  her  liberation  and  redemption 
also.  It  is  up  to  her  to  prove  that  she  has  recognized  her 
true  position  in  the  movement,  and  in  the  struggle  of  the 
present  for  a  better  future,  and  that  she  is  determined  to 
participate.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  men  to  help  her  to  cast 
aside  all  prejudices  and  to  take  part  in  the  great  struggle. 
Let  no  one  underestimate  his  strength,  and  think  that  his 
help  is  of  no  consequence.  In  the  struggle  for  the  prog- 
ress of  mankind,  no  power,  not  even  the  weakest,  can  be 
spared.  The  steady  fall  of  drops  will  finally  hollow  the 
hardest  stone.  Many  drops  make  a  brook,  the  brooks 
make  a  river,  and  the  rivers  make  a  stream.  Finally,  no 
obstacle  is  strong  enough  to  hem  the  stream's  majestic 
course.  It  is  the  same  with  the  development  of  man.  If 
all  who  feel  called  upon  devote  their  whole  strength  to 
this  struggle,  the  ultimate  victory  will  be  certain.  This 
victory  will  be  all  the  greater,  the  more  eagerly  and  un- 
selfishly each  one  pursues  the  mapped  out  path.  Doubts, 
whether  the  individual  for  all  his  sacrifices,  toils  and 
efforts,  may  still  live  to  see  the  dawn  of  a  new,  more 
beautiful  period  of  civilization,  must  not  effect  us,  nor 
must  they  prevent  us  from  pursuing  the  chosen  path.  We 
can  neither  determine  the  length,  nor  the  nature  of  the 
phases  of  development,  that  this  struggle  for  the  highest 
aims  must  still  pass  thru ;  we  can  do  this  as  little  as  we 
have  any  certainty  in  regard  to  the  duration  of  our  lives. 
But  as  we  are  dominated  by  the  joy  of  living,  so  may  we 
also  cherish  the  hope  that  we  may  live  to  see  this  victory. 
We  are  living  in  an  age  that  rushes  forward  "with  seven 
league  boots,"  and  that  makes  all  enemies  of  a  new, 
higher  order  of  society  tremble. 

Every  day  furnishes  new  proof  of  the  rapid  growth, 
and  the  tremendous  spread  of  Socialist  thought.  Every- 
where there  is  motion  and  progress.  The  dawn  of  a  bet- 
ter day  is  drawing  nigh.  So  let  us  struggle  and  strive 
onward,  regardless  of  "where"  and  "when"  the  boundary- 


508  Conclusion 

posts  of  a  new  and  better  age  for  mankind  will  be  raised. 
If  we  should  fall  in  the  course  of  this  great  struggle  for 
liberation,  others  will  take  our  place.  We  will  fall  with 
the  consciousness  of  having  done  our  duty  as  human  be- 
ings, and  with  the  conviction  that  the  goal  will  be  at- 
tained, no  matter  how  the  powers  hostile  to  humanity 
may  oppose  and  resist  the  triumphal  march  of  progress. 

"The  future  belongs  to  Socialism,  that  is,  primarily,  to 
the  worker  and  to  woman." 


Contents  509 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Introduction  3 

WOMAN  IN  THE  PAST. 

Chapter  I. — The  Position  of  Woman  in  Primeval  Society 9 

1  Chief  Epochs  of  Primeval  History 9 

2.  Family  Forms   14 

3.  The  Matriarchate  20 

Chapter  II. — Conflict  Between  Matriarchate  and  Patriarchate. .  28 

i.  Rise  of  the  Patriarchate 28 

2  Traces  of  the  Matriarchate  in  Greek  Myths  and  Dramas.  34 

3.  Legitimate  Wives  and  Courtesans  in  Athens 37 

4.  Remnants  of  the  Matriarchate  in  the  Customs  of  Various 

Nations  44 

5.  Rise  of  the  State — Dissolution  of  the  Gens  in  Rome. ...  50 

Chapter   III. — Christianity    56 

Chapter  IV. — Woman  in  the  Mediaeval  Age 63 

1.  The  Position  of  Woman  Among  the  Germans 63 

2.  Feudalism  and  the  Right  of  the  First  Night 66 

3.  The  Rise  of  Cities — Monastic  Affairs — Prostitution 69 

4.  Knighthood  and  the  Veneration  of  Women 75 

Chapter  V. — The  Reformation  78 

1.  Luther    78 

2.  Results  of  the  Reformation— The  Thirty  Years'  War. ...  83 

Chapter  VI.— The  Eighteenth  Century 88 

1.  Court  Life  in  Germany 88 

2.  Commercialism  and  the  New  Marriage  Laws 90 

3.  The  French  Revolution  and  the  Rise  of  Industry 93 


5io  Contents 

Page 
WOMAN  AT  THE  PRESENT  DAY. 

Chapter  VII. — Woman  as  a  Sex  Being 96 

•        i.  The  Sexual  Impulse 96 

2.  Celibacy  and  the  Frequency  of  Suicide 100 

Chapter   VIII. — Modern   Marriage 104 

1.  Marriage  as  a  Profession 104 

2.  Decline  of  the  Birthrate 106 

3.  Mercenary  Marriage  and  the  Matrimonial  Market no 

Chapter  IX. — Disruption  of  the  Family 116 

1.  Increase   of   Divorce 116 

2.  Bourgeois  and  Proletarian  Marriage 124 

Chapter  X. — Marriage  as  a  Means  of  Support 132 

1.  Decline  of  the  Marriage  Rate 132 

2.  Infanticide  and  Abortion 135 

3.  Education   for   Marriage 140 

4.  The  Misery  of  Present  Day  Marriages 147 

Chapter  XL — The  Chances  of  Matrimony 153 

1.  The  Numerical  Proportion  of  the  Sexes 153 

2.  Obstacles  to  Marriage — The  Excess  of  Women 164 

Chapter   XII. — Prostitution   a  Necessary   Social  Institution   of 

Bourgeois  Society   174 

1.  Prostitution  and  Society 174 

2.  Prostitution  and  the  State 178 

3.  The  White  Slave  Trade 188 

4.  The  Increase  of  Prostitution — Illegitimate  Motherhood..  193 

5.  Crimes  Against  Morality  and  Sexual  Diseases 204 

Chapter  XIII. — Woman  in  Industry 209 

1.  Development  and  Extension  of  Female  Labor 209 

2.  Factory   Work   of   Married   Women — Sweatshop    Labor 

and  Dangerous   Occupations 222 

Chapter  XIV. — The  Struggle  of  Woman  for  Education 233 

1.  The  Revolution  in  Domestic  Life 233 

2.  The  Intellectual  Abilities  of  Women 239 

3.  Differences  in  Physical  and  Mental  Qualities  of  Man  and 

Woman    245 

4.  Darwinism  and  the  Condition  of  Society 253 

5.  Woman  and  the  Learned  Professions 258 


Contents  511 

Page 
Chapter  XV. — The  Legal  Status  of  Women 272 

1.  The  Struggle  for  Equality  Before  the  Law 272 

2.  The   Struggle  for  Political  Equality 280 

STATE  AND   SOCIETY. 

Chapter  XVI. — The  Class-State  and  the  Modern  Proletariat. .. .  307 

1.  Our  Public  Life 307 

2.  Aggravation  of  Social  Extremes 315 

Chapter  XVII. — The  Process  of  Concentration  in  Capitalistic 

Industry   319 

1.  The  Displacement  of  Agriculture  by  Industry 319 

2.  Increasing    Pauperization — Preponderance   of   Large    In- 

dustrial  Establishments 323 

3.  Concentration  of  Wealth 333 

Chapter  XVIII. — Crises  and  Competition 338 

1.  Causes  and  Effects  of  the  Crises 338 

2.  Intermediate  Trade  and  the  Increased  Cost  of  Living. .. .  343 

Chapter  XIX. — The  Revolution  in  Agriculture 347 

1.  Transatlantic  Competition  and  Desertion  of  the  Country.  347 

2.  Peasants  and  Great  Landowners 349 

3.  The  Contrast  Between  City  and  Country 358 

THE  SOCIALIZATION  OF  SOCIETY. 

Chapter   XX. — The   Social  Revolution 363 

1.  The  Transformation  of  Society 363 

2.  Expropriation  of  the  Expropriators 371 

Chapter  XXI. — Fundamental  Laws  of  Socialistic  Society 370 

1.  Duty  to  Work  of  All  Able-bodied  Persons 370 

2.  Harmony   of    Interests 375 

3.  Organization  of  Labor 380 

4.  The  Growth  of  the  Productivity  of  Labor 383 

5.  Removal  of  the   Contrast   Between  Mental   and   Manual 

Work    392 

6.  Increase   of   Consumption 396 

7.  Equal  Duty  to  Work  for  All 399 

8.  Abolition  of  Trade — Transformation  of  Traffic 405 


5i2  Contents 

Page 
Chapter  XXII. — Socialism  and  Agriculture 407 

1.  Abolition  of  the  Private  Ownership  of  Land 407 

2.  The  Amelioration  of  Land 409 

3.  Changed  Methods  of  Farming 414 

4.  Agriculture    on    a    Large    and    Small     Scale — Electric 

Appliances  415 

5.  Vine  Culture  of  the  Future 424 

6.  Measures  to  Prevent  Exhaustion  of  the  Soil 427 

7.  Removal  of  the  Contrast  Between  City  and  Country 431 

Chapter  XXIII.— Abolition  of  the  State 434 

Chapter  XXIV.— The  Future  of  Religion 437 

Chapter  XXV.— The  Socialist  System  of  Education 440 

Chapter  XXVI. — Literature  and  Art  in  Socialistic  Society 451 

Chapter  XXVII. — Free  Development  of  Individuality 455 

1.  Freedom   From   Care 455 

2.  Changes  in  the  Methods  of  Nutrition 457 

3.  The  Communistic  Kitchen 461 

4.  Transformation  of  Domestic  Life 463 

Chapter  XXVIIL— Woman  in  the  Future 466 

Chapter  XXIX.— Internationally  473 

Chapter  XXIX.— The  Question  of  Population  and  Socialism...  478 

1.  Fear  of  Overpopulation 478 

2.  Production  of  Overpopulation 481 

3.  Poverty  and  Fecundity 484 

4.  Lack  of  Human  Beings  and  Abundance  of  Food 487 

5.  Social  Conditions  and  Reproductive  Ability 494 

Conclusion   500 


